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Doc. 9192
10 September 2001
A dynamic social policy for children and adolescents in towns and cities
Report
Social, Health and Family Affairs Committee
Rapporteur: Mrs Edeltraud Gatterer, Austria, Group of the European People's Party
Summary
This report addresses the need for a dynamic social policy for children and adolescents in towns and cities and in particular the concern that they are becoming increasingly antisocial. The many social ills connected with urban life include child violence, juvenile delinquency, children living in and off the street, and the poor prospects and sense of disaffection of young people in deprived suburbs.
The Parliamentary Assembly urges the member states of the Council of Europe to develop a dynamic social policy for children and adolescents based on prevention and partnership and in respect of children’s civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights according to the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child and the European Convention on the Exercise of Children’s Rights. It recommends that the Committee of Ministers assist member states in this task by developing appropriate guidelines.
I. Draft recommendation
1. The Parliamentary Assembly is concerned that young people in towns and cities are becoming increasingly antisocial and is worried about the many social ills connected with urban life and the emergence of suburban "ghettos".
2. Deprived urban areas across Europe are repeatedly highlighted by national media reporting cases of child violence; juvenile delinquency, sometimes involving very young children; possession of weapons and drugs, particularly in educational establishments; and the severe living conditions of street children.
3. However, the phenomena of urban youth "malaise" have to be seen in a wider context of rapid social and economic change, which has imposed the consequences of acute poverty on many families and children in Europe, both in the well-established democracies and in the new Council of Europe member states.
4. Unemployment, poverty, family break-up, adult violence, weakening of social welfare and other public infrastructure, and lack of adequate community spirit and support, all influence the life experience and behaviour of children and adolescents in towns and cities.
5. Youth violence does not always aim at misappropriation but most often is a means of protest and self-assertion. It takes different forms: against oneself (suicide, drug use); within groups (bullying at school, youth gangs in ghettos); or against society at large as so-called "hate-crime".
6. Furthermore, statistics show that children and young people are more often victims than perpetrators of violence.
7. Youth violence is therefore not a phenomenon to be considered in isolation but instead as a strong indicator of adult malaise, intolerance, fear and violence.
8. There is a growing recognition that juvenile justice or criminal justice agencies will not of themselves resolve the problems posed or experienced by children and adolescents who offend.
9. In this respect, the Parliamentary Assembly is concerned by the development of law enforcement policies that are in breach of the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child, which every member state of the Council of Europe has ratified, and in particular by the situation of children in prison, especially when awaiting trial. Internationally recognised non-judicial measures and community-based alternatives to custody for children ought to be introduced.
10. The Parliamentary Assembly believes that the response to youth violence needs to be based on prevention rather than repression or punishment, addressing at an early stage the situation children facing disadvantage and risk.
11. Moreover, a dynamic social policy for children and adolescents should not only focus on children who offend, who were abused or who experienced poverty, but equally on preventive measures for all children at risk (violent households, poor parental support, negative early life experiences etc.). Such measures should also address the specific situation and experiences of girls in the family, community and society in general.
12. A shift in political will is needed to focus resources on the introduction of multi-disciplinary measures at an early stage, providing children and young people with positive life experiences, restoring democratic and civil values, fostering creativity, solidarity, and positive community participation.
13. In this connection, the Parliamentary Assembly commends the work undertaken by the intergovernmental sector of the Council of Europe, in particular with regard to education, culture, youth activities, social cohesion and the prevention of crime and drug misuse.
14. Crime and urban security have also been addressed by the Congress of Local and Regional Authorities of Europe (CLRAE), which recently adopted a manual on local government policies aimed at reducing crime.
15. The Parliamentary Assembly is convinced that appropriate responses to urban youth malaise can but result from concerted action between different partners at local and national levels, further assisted by exchange of experience and guidelines established at European level.
16. While also recalling the issues raised in Recommendation 1286 (1996) on a European strategy for children and Recommendation 1460 (2000) on the setting up of a European Ombudsman for children, the Parliamentary Assembly recommends that the Committee of Ministers:
i. give suitable priority to social policy for children and adolescents in towns and cities and instruct the appropriate body to develop guidelines in this policy area on the basis of pan-European information regarding the lives and experiences of children;
ii. urge the member states of the Council of Europe:
a. to guarantee, through explicit recognition in their constitutional texts or domestic laws, children's civil and political rights, as well as their economic, social and cultural rights, as enshrined in the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child;
b. to ratify all relevant Council of Europe conventions on the rights and protection of the child, in particular the European Convention on the Exercise of Children's Rights;
c. to engage in exchange of experience at European level involving both national and local authorities (European Crime prevention network; European Observatory on urban security, etc.);
d. to develop a dynamic social policy for children and adolescents in towns and cities based on following elements:
1. measures and programmes which support parents and families in the parenting role;
2. welfare and benefit schemes in support of parents and families;
3. measures and policies based on the partnership and involvement of all sectors - local and national, public and private;
4. measures to address the whole range of risks faced by children and adolescents in the social and physical environment in which they live;
5. development, for children who offend, of alternative forms of dispute resolution: alternatives to judicial processes; alternatives to custody; and community-based measures in line with internationally recognised standards for children in the justice system;
6. harmonised standards and practices (for example, specialised courts for minors) in all the Council of Europe member states with regard to children who commit, or who are victims of, offences (for example, family violence, sexual abuse);
7. promoting the role of formal and non-formal education in preparing children for adulthood and their role in civic and political society, in promoting values of tolerance and respect for others, and in addressing inequalities based on disadvantage and gender;
8. assistance in transition from school to employment, providing children and adolescents with skills necessary for the labour market;
9. leisure pursuits (culture, sports, etc.) for children and adolescents;
10. programmes and projects which assist children and young people to address the negative effects of social exclusion and marginalisation;
11. mechanisms by which policies affecting all areas of social and political life - employment, housing, crime, health, education, etc. – can be "child proofed";
12. establishment of a national Child Ombudsman for promotion and monitoring of the rights of the child;
13. positive values of the Internet; the World Wide Web; and the new information and communications technologies in providing information for children and young people and in providing a mechanism for co-ordination of their activities;
14. participation of children and adolescents in decision-making and policy development;
15. fostering of the supporting role of extended families and the local community;
16. taking into account gender based issues and family planning;
17. measures to improve the situation of street children.
II. Explanatory memorandum by Mrs Gatterer
The Rapporteur is grateful to Prof. Stewart Asquith of the Centre for the Child and Society at the University of Glasgow who assisted her in the preparation of this report.
Introduction
1. This report addresses the need for a dynamic social policy for children and adolescents in town and cities and in particular the concern that young people in towns and cities are becoming increasingly anti-social. The many social ills connected with urban life and the emergence of suburban ghettoes include child violence; juvenile delinquency (sometimes involving very young children); the possession of weapons and drugs and their availability, particularly in educational establishments; street children; a worrying increase in certain diseases; the disappearance of public-spiritedness; the lack of participation in political life; and the poor prospects and sense of disaffection of young people in unsightly and deprived suburbs.
2. Concern has also been expressed about the development of law enforcement policies which are in breach of the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child and in particular about the situation of children in prison, especially when awaiting trial. The fate of children in prisons provides particular justification for seeking alternative solutions that will safeguard their future in society.
1. Children 1 in Europe: an overview
3. In the countries of the European Union alone there are almost 80,000,000 children between 0-172 years of age, representing a fifth of the population of each of the member countries with the exception of Ireland where almost one third of the population falls within this age group. Projecting this figure on to the 800,000,000 people in countries represented through the Council of Europe, this report is then concerned with the life experiences and opportunities offered to 160,000,000 children below the age of 18. There are also 65,000,000 young people between 15 and 24 in Central and Eastern Europe. Apart from the importance of how the needs of children across Europe are met, this section of the population represents the future of Europe. The importance of their early life experiences is not then simply in helping to determine their adulthood but is directly related to their ability to participate in and influence the future of Europe as responsible citizens.
4. In discussions and literature about children and young people, two broad generalised perspectives can be identified, both opposing sides of what has been referred to as the "angels and devils debate". On one hand, children are seen as vulnerable and in need of support and protection from the various risks and threats posed to them by adults and the communities in which they live. On the other hand, they are seen as problematic and their behaviour in regard to others and to property is seen to be threatening, harmful and destructive, requiring a severe social reaction and punitive response. It is this threat of the increasing application of harsh law enforcement measures against children that is also identified as not necessarily being an appropriate nor an exclusive option. Such a response also ignores the growing body of evidence available about the actual experiences of children and young people throughout Europe, evidence which clearly illustrates:
- that children and young people may well equally be the "victims" of harmful and destructive behaviour;
- that punitive and harsh responses may well be less effective than measures and policies which are directed at those factors which put children and adolescents at risk;
- to conceiving of children only as a threat has all the hallmark of the syndrome that Ryan3 so long ago alerted us to, that of "blaming the victim";
5. No claim is being made in this report that children do not pose any threat. What is being claimed on the basis of the evidence available is that to claim only that they are a threat and that their socially disruptive behaviour should be the subject of harsh law-enforcement responses ignores the social conditions in which many of our children live and grow up.
6. What the punitive response also ignores is that the life experiences of many of Europe's children have to be considered in the context of rapid social and economic transformation which has imposed the consequences of severe poverty on many families and children in Europe, especially in Central and Eastern Europe4. Though the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child is recognised as being the convention most ratified in the history of human rights, countries faced various difficulties in providing children with the resources necessary to allow for their healthy growth and development. The matters addressed here concern not only countries in Central and Eastern Europe as many countries in Western Europe have also been criticised for the high levels of poverty experienced by their children5. It is a matter of fact that many children and adolescents in Europe still experience considerable suffering, abuse and exploitation and live in conditions which deny them the basic social and civil rights afforded to them by the UN Convention.
7. Any review of the life experiences of children and adolescents in Europe clearly reveals that they are as likely to be "at risk" as to pose a risk. Even where they do pose a risk there are identifiable factors which have to be addressed if a "dynamic social policy for children and adolescents" is to be meaningful and effective not only for children themselves but also for the communities and societies in which they live.
8. A dynamic social policy has to recognise that the dividing line between children and adolescents as a victim or perpetrator is a very thin one. Many children and adolescents are themselves the victims of violence and offending behaviour, especially those living on an urban estate; many children suffer from physical and domestic abuse; sexual abuse has increased; many children are the victims of war and conflict in various regions or of economies and social frameworks in a state of collapse.
9. Even in relation to those children who are criminal offenders, to see them simply as perpetrators ignores the powerful risk factors which propel them into offending behaviour from the earliest age.
10. "The impact on families of increasing levels of unemployment, poverty and the breakdown of social welfare and social security systems put many children at risk6".
11. If states fail to address factors which marginalize many families and their children and which inhibit them from participating in social and democratic life, then generations of children will continue to be excluded from mainstream social life and be subjected to growing social inequalities.
12. In this report a general profile is presented of the experiences of children and young people in Europe. Though a number of categories are employed, none of them should be considered in isolation from the others. It is impossible to assess the significance of offences by children and young people without taking into consideration other aspects of their lives - their living conditions; their health profile; their ethnic origins and so on. All these factors have important implications for the development of a truly "dynamic social policy".
1.1 Growing Up in Cities
13. This report is largely concerned with the development of a dynamic social policy for children and adolescents in towns and cities. The very nature of the urban environment and the implications it has for the life experiences of children, adolescents and their families have to be taken into consideration in the development of a policy which is both effective and sensitive. One of the most important sources of information on the experiences of children and young people in urban environments can be found in the MOST Programme of UNESCO "Growing up in Cities"7. The programme has a large number of projects seeking to improve the experience of children in towns and cities, all based on a common set of objectives.
Growing Up in Cities In industrialised countries, a half to three-quarters of all children live in urban areas; in the developing world, the majority of children and youth will be living in urban areas in the next few decades. Yet across a wide range of indicators, cities are failing to meet the needs of young people and their families. • What does the process of urbanisation mean in the lives of young people? • From young people's own perspectives, what makes an urban neighbourhood a good place in which grow up? • Can cities be positive places for young people – places that support and nurture their development as constructive, contributing members of a civil society? "Growing Up in Cities" is a global effort to understand and respond to these and other questions, and to help address the issues affecting urban children and youth. It is a collaborative undertaking of the MOST Programme of UNESCO and interdisciplinary teams of municipal officials, urban professionals, and child advocates around the world, working with young people themselves to create communities that are better places in which to grow up - and therefore, better places for us all. |
14. The nature of the urban experience for children and adolescents will vary from city to city and will display considerable change over time. Nevertheless, there are a number of features common to the urban context which must necessarily be accommodated within a dynamic social policy. For example, since the 1960s, the development of towns and cities has been characterised by the creation of large urban estates (often with large tower blocks, housing a large number of the community); by significant change in the layout and development of cities (such that they often share the features of a non-residential centre surrounded by shopping facilities and suburban estates); a commitment to meeting the requirements of traffic management in order to improve the safety of children; the housing of poorer sections of the community (often including immigrant or "incoming" populations) in particular areas or estates; and associated with the above, a breakdown in the relationship and trust between forces of law and order and local communities.
15. The layout of modern towns and cities often fails to meet the very specific needs of children and adolescents in terms of play and leisure facilities and, conversely, increases the risk of them becoming involved in offending behaviour from an early age on. Children in towns and cities (especially in the more deprived areas) are more likely to become involved in drug associated behaviours; have poorer health profiles; have a greater risk of involvement in road traffic accidents; have a greater chance of being caught up in violence either as perpetrator or victim; and be less successful in the labour market. The way in which the urban environment is managed is of crucial importance to the well being and prospects of many children and adolescents in Europe.
16. Nevertheless, the nature of urban life should not simply be seen as presenting negative experiences for children and adolescents only, as difficulties are faced by many citizens, especially by minorities, women and elderly people. Any attempt to address the negative aspects of urban living has to be seen in the context of a broad policy designed to meet the needs of all citizens and not of any particular group isolated from another. Marginalisation and social exclusion is the experience of many of our citizens regardless of age. A dynamic social policy for children and adolescents, with the aim of reducing those factors in the urban environment which put children at risk cannot simply be addressed by discrete housing, environment, social, health, education, and policing policies. What is required is a multidisciplinary and multisector approach, involving all those agencies which are involved in the management of towns and cities. For example, the criminal justice system by itself will never reduce or prevent offences by children and adolescents. Rather, the criminal justice authorities can only reduce offences by children and adolescents if they share common objectives and work in partnership with other agencies in charge.
17. The "Edinburgh community safety partnership" may serve as an example in illustrating a multisectoral approach addressing community based problems:
"….various groups have been formed to define, carry out and follow up the required actions. Young people, women, ethnic and sexual minorities and business security are themes handled by these groups. The groups are the outgrowth of a broader entity, the "Edinburgh community safety partnership" headed by a local council member who also chairs the police liaison office. This entity includes the police and fire brigade, tenants, enterprises, the chamber of commerce, senior citizens' representatives and the chairs of each working group8" |
What the "Edinburgh community safety partnership" also reflects is the commitment to finding solutions to difficulties associated with the urban environment and living in an urban environment which is based on social inclusion, social justice, the need for partnership and the recognition of the fact that the physical environment impacts significantly on the social and economic context in which citizens live.
18. The need to involve the community when addressing the problems that arise within towns and cities is accommodated within major crime prevention programmes such as the "Communities that Care Programme"9; reflected in national policy statements on social inclusion10; and is embodied also within Council of Europe statements11.
19. A good example of a partnership between the community and the relevant agencies working within a particularly deprived area is also "FARE", a project designed to assist families and young people. Two comments from members of "FARE12" are particularly revealing- the first one is from a child, the second one is from a parent:
"The gang fighting was really bad when I was younger. Luckily I didn't get involved. My brother was in the local gang and nearly died of a stab wound to his lung on Christmas Eve." "FARE" has been a good thing for me. It's kept me busy and helped me stick to a routine, getting up and coming into work each day. FARE is good for the kids too, keeping them off the streets. I wish there had been something like it when I was a kid." |
20. For those towns and cities in Central and Eastern Europe which are undergoing rapid social and economic development, the concerns regarding the experiences of children and adolescents are even greater because of the rapid growth in the numbers of street children and children living on the streets; the growth in drug related behaviour; the extent of sexual exploitation and trafficking of children; and the serious lack of necessary financial and other resources.
1.2 Crime and Violence
21. In Western Europe there is evidence to suggest that rates of offending by children and young people are stable, especially when reference is made to minor offences and offences against property. Nevertheless, there are a number of trends which have to be acknowledged in the development of appropriate responses. First, there is in some countries a sharp increase in violent behaviour committed by children and young people, though, it has to be said, these are still the minority of offences. There is also some evidence that girls are increasingly involved in offences involving violence though again, reflecting the relative invisibility of girls in the juvenile justice and criminal justice systems, numbers are low. It has to be remembered of course that juvenile justice systems themselves are largely designed to deal with offending by males and many of the concepts embodied within them reflect that. But the main implication of the increase in violent offences and the stabilising of others is that juvenile justice systems around Europe are adopting an increasingly "twin track" approach. That is, systems are designed such that the majority of young offenders are dealt with by non judicial/non formal measures and processes and the minority of those involved in the more serious offences and behaviours are dealt with by more formal and more severe forms of sanctions. Cases such as the Bulger case in the United Kingdom have had a dramatic effect in influencing responses to young offenders in general right across Europe. What also has to be said is that the nature of the fear or insecurity felt by members of the community at serious offending by children and young people, because of the role played by media and others in their portrayal of young offenders, may be disproportionate. Secondly, it does appear that children and young people are tending to become involved in offending behaviour at a much earlier age. This again will have important implications for the development of a truly dynamic social policy as many children become involved in offending before they reach the age of criminal responsibility.
22. In terms of the countries in Central and Eastern Europe, crime rates in general have escalated dramatically and, accordingly, offending by children and young people has also increased sharply. What is perhaps more worrying is that children and young people are increasingly involved in offences of violence and often involving weapons. The suggestion has also been made that young people in many Central and Eastern countries are implicated in serious and violent behaviour because of their association with organised crime. The general point to be made here is of course that no gross generalisations should be made about offending by children and young people in Europe and about how to respond to it without taking into consideration the very different social and economic conditions in which children and their families live.
23. Though some children and young people right across Europe are involved in violent behaviour, it is also the case that children and young people are more likely to be the victims of violent behaviour than the perpetrator. We know that children are victims of violence at the hands of their peers but they are also the victims of abuse and exploitation by adults and very often by the "violence" done to them by our very social institutions themselves.13
24. What is also by now well known is that those children and young people who resort to violent behaviour whether against others, property or even themselves, are very likely to have been influenced by the levels of violent behaviour experienced within their families or at the hands of their parents.
25. There is clearly a movement in some European countries for harsh responses to the behaviour of our children and young people. Nevertheless, it is now well known that there are clear "risk" factors which help determine whether a child becomes involved in offending behaviour or not and if our policies are to meaningfully resolve the problem of offending and violent behaviour by the young then they have to address these in order to reduce the risks. Known risk factors associated with delinquent behaviour inevitably include poverty, unemployment, violent households, poor parental support, negative early life experiences, etc.
26. One of the major preoccupations of most systems of juvenile justice in Europe is with the numbers of children who have committed offences and who are detained in an institution either as a sanction or on remand prior to appearance in court or prior to the announcement of sentence or measure. Again, the effect of such cases as the Bulger case in the UK, or even the Silje Redergard case in Norway14, is the search for appropriate measures for those children who commit serious offences and the questioning of the role of custodial confinement. And in Central and Eastern Europe15 in particular it is still the case that many children who offend are held in custodial settings; that there is still a political mind-set in which custodial confinement is a preferred option – especially in the light of the escalating crime rates referred to above; and that resort to formal judicial proceedings and custody is not unusual. This is of course also in contrast to the requirements of international law and internationally recognised standards for children in the justice system16 where custody should be used only as a last resort; where formal proceedings should be avoided as far as possible and where custody or confinement should be used for as short a time as possible. This is clearly one of the areas in which, in Europe as a whole and not just in Central and Eastern Europe, the rights afforded to children by the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child may well be being denied.
1.3 Street Children
27. It is difficult to estimate the actual numbers of street children or children on the streets17 and any figures offered have to be treated with caution and as a probable underestimate. Some figures are available – for example, the figure in Romania is put at about 3,500 children; in Poland at 5,000; the Czech Republic at 1,300; and Hungary at 1,20018 though these are recognised as gross underestimates.
28. It has also been argued that in Russia19 the figures have reached proportions not seen since before the Second World War. Figures for the Russian Federation have been put at 1,000,000 children being homeless with 60,000 of these in Moscow alone. And again though exact figures are not stated the Baudouin20 foundation have no doubt at all that in Europe as a whole the phenomenon of street children has increased dramatically in recent years, especially in Central and Eastern Europe. Nor is it a new problem but it is one that has increased substantially in the wake of the rapid social and economic transition of many countries where the social welfare framework is unable to respond adequately.
29. The rapid transition of many countries has put more and more children at risk of ending up on the streets because of poverty; unemployment; family breakdown; divorce and separation; homelessness; displacement; separation from parents etc. What is equally important is that not only children are subjected to the impact of such negative life experiences but this also occurs in a context: the loss of the social welfare and health provision which was previously available – quite often on a universal basis. So, children and their families not only experience the negative effects of social and economic breakdown on their families but also the breakdown of major social and welfare institutions.
30. From research done on the experiences of street children, it appears that 14-17 year olds constitute the largest group of children on the streets, though Bulgarian studies suggest that 5% of all street children interviewed were under the age of 10. Further, in many countries – the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Romania, Poland, Hungary and Bulgaria – a large proportion of street children come from Roma families. In the Baltic Sea States, particularly Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia, there is an over-representation of the ethnic minority groupings - especially of the Russian speaking groups.
31. It is also perhaps not surprising that street children tend to congregate in the larger cities and towns, especially near railway stations and other areas where there is a large body of people. This is of course because of the opportunities afforded for begging and also for selling sexual services. Sexual exploitation of street children is a major concern with severe consequences for the children involved. One study of street children in Romania discovered that 27% of all girls who were living on the street and who were interviewed for the study had been raped. Many others, often quite young, had been involved in the selling of sexual services. Reports are also known of children as young as 12 selling their younger sisters on the streets of Moscow for sex21.
32. Examples of projects funded by NGOs and Local and Central governments are illustrated through the work of the Baudouin Foundation in a number of Central and East European countries including Latvia. The project offered by the Latvian Youth Movement22 is of particular note. The project aims to provide social rehabilitation to street children through direct communication. It targets young people up to 18 who live in old Riga and who hang out in the streets.
33. Studies based on interviews with street children in Central and Eastern Europe show that despite their current lifestyles children on the street show a wish to have more conventional lifestyles, better educational opportunities, better relationships with their families, and better employment opportunities. This is particularly revealing for any future policy of support and assistance, though street children show a great reluctance to give up their life on the streets if it means giving up their independence and support from their peers.
34. With the breakdown of the social welfare infrastructure in the respective countries, it is also the case that many children on the streets are so not because they have been failed by their families as such but because the welfare institutions in which they may have been housed were poorly staffed, poorly equipped, sites of abuse and exploitation and generally lacked the facilities and resources to assist children. For many children life on the streets is then more appealing than the life they experienced in institutions and in care.
35. The future projection for many countries is that the scale of the phenomenon of street children may well increase because of: continuing economic and social decline; the absence of material resources and qualified personnel; the closure of large state institutions with no substitute care offered; the failure to develop policies and measures to meet the needs and aspirations of street children; the possible increases in the numbers of displaced children in the context of Balkan conflict in particular.
1.4 Children and Health
36. Concern has already been expressed about the nature of the violence that children and young people may inflict on others, often on their peers. What has to be equally acknowledged is that there is an increase in many European countries in the harm that children and young people inflict on themselves. Micklewright and Stewart point out that in the European Union, after traffic accidents, the second most common cause of death for those in the 15-24 age group is suicide. Further, although road traffic deaths for this age group are in decline, the average suicide rate has grown by 40% since 1970. Four time as many young men are affected as young women. Moreover, the suicide rates vary greatly across Europe with Finland and Austria being amongst those countries with the highest rates and Italy amongst those with the lowest.
37. In Central and Eastern Europe, the numbers of suicides by children and young people are also rising at alarming rates. In the Czech Republic, the number of children below 14 who attempted suicide more than quadrupled. In Latvia, Lithuania and the Russian Federation could be found the highest suicide levels with for example – for every 100,000 teenagers in 1994 aged 15-19 in the Russian Federation, over 50 committed suicide. Again, boys are much more likely (five times so in the case of Belarus, Hungary and Poland) to commit suicide. A particularly disturbing and perhaps revealing figure is that one child in ten children released from an institution in the Russian Federation attempts suicide within six years.23
38. As regards other health variables, and taking a truly pan-European perspective, note has to be made of the fact that in many countries where resources are scarce or have been withdrawn, children are increasingly subject to deterioration in overall health with the reappearance of those infectious diseases which have largely been controlled in Western Europe. These include polio, tuberculosis and diphtheria with the effect of HIV and Aids increasingly impacting on children and young people. There is also evidence to suggest that both maternal and child health have deteriorated with mothers in particular subject to deficiency in a number of nutritional requirements. The point is made that poor diet, smoking and alcohol consumption amongst women and especially mothers to be, may well account for low birth weight in a number of Central and East European countries. What is well known of course is that low birth weight is a major determinant not just of survival but of life chances in general and can affect children's later social, health, and educational profile.
39. Nor can it be assumed that it is only in Central and Eastern Europe that children's health is being compromised by poverty. The experience of many children in Western Europe is still one in which poverty impacts on their life experiences24 and where there is increasing concern about the reappearance of infectious diseases which at one time were assumed to have been eradicated.
40. Of particular concern has to be the reporting of increased levels of drug use in the European countries with again figures from Central and Eastern Europe being a major concern- as many as 1,500,000 people are noted as being registered in the Russian Federation as drug addicts; in Ukraine almost 20,000 minors were reported as being drug addicts in 1995; in Hungary in 1992 the first schoolchildren underwent treatment for heroin addiction.
41. Presenting a general statement on drug misuse Zouev states:
"Substance abuse rates are higher among marginalized youth, children living and working on the streets and children of minorities, particularly Roma. Among runaways and homeless children, marijuana, glue and solvent sniffing…. help ease hunger pains and dull emotions. Studies show that substance abuse amongst youth is usually associated with other risk taking behaviours such as unsafe sex, teenage pregnancy, crime and delinquency, problems that affect young lives well into adulthood".25
1.5 Education and the Labour Market
42. In terms of the educational opportunities afforded children and young people across Europe a number of significant features can be identified as pertinent to this report. In particular it is clear that those children who are "vulnerable" within education systems are those26:
- who come from economically disadvantaged families;
- whose parents have limited educational experience;
- who come from ethnic minorities, migrant groups or travellers.
43. Moreover, the expansion of the educational sector is not uniform across Europe with the opportunity for education at secondary level not being uniformly available to all children. Also, there is clear evidence that family background is still highly correlated with educational attainment- children from more disadvantaged backgrounds being less likely to be high educational achievers. The further implication of this is that those children who leave school without strong qualifications are of course disadvantaged later in the labour market. In terms of the differences between boys and girls it does appear that though gender differences in educational attainment are diminishing there is a clear gender bias in terms of the subjects studied by girls and boys respectively. There is of course continuing concern that even for those girls who are highly educated, in most European countries it is still the case that the "glass ceiling" is encountered. As a very recent example – many women staff at the University of Glasgow have pointed out that although more and more girls are entering higher education as students, even within the university sector it is very difficult for women to proceed up the career ladder27.
44. What we also know28 is that no matter the emotional support given by parents to children in those families where financial support is not forthcoming, the chances of a child or young person going right through the educational system to university or other forms of higher education are considerably reduced. The link between poverty, educational attainment and the labour market is well documented. The lack of available resources in general but for education in particular in many Central and East European countries does mean that many European children are doubly disadvantaged by living in poverty but also not having adequate educational facilities available to them. Even where educational facilities are available, the experience in a number of countries is of high truancy levels as families question the value of education in the context of extreme poverty and the necessity for children to work in order to help the family survive.
45. The importance of the school and the education system in general is of course not just because of the opportunities it affords to children to compete in the labour market but equally because of the role the education system has in preparing children for democratic citizenship; promoting respect for cultural diversity; and promoting understanding of cultural diversity as a means of addressing racism and xenophobia amongst young people29. Nor should the concern with xenophobia and racism be seen to be an issue only for those countries where ethnic conflict has surfaced, most noticeably recently in the Balkans, as it is a feature of many countries right across Europe where the growth of extreme right wing political movements has attracted many young people. The movement of large bodies of people and the growth in numbers of those seeking political asylum and the association with racism and xenophobia has been the subject of a recent report which again identifies the problem of racism as being associated with countries right across Europe30.
46. The problem facing children in the labour market when they leave school is of course that those who have few skills or qualifications will inevitably be disadvantaged in what has become a highly competitive and qualification driven market. The absence of school to work transition arrangements31 and the inability of many countries to afford young people sufficient financial support at this highly critical time in their lives makes it difficult for many children and young people to compete effectively and meaningfully on the labour market. Referring not just to those countries which have poor transition arrangements, Furlong et al.32 can clearly state that "In many countries, unemployment has become a normal part of the transition from school to work".
1.6 Leisure
47. Furlong et al33 point to the importance of the constructive use of leisure time for children and young people and urge that it be seen as an integral element in their social and personal development - not as something children and young people indulge in when they have nothing else to do. What they also point to is that, in any case, the image of children and young people having large amounts of leisure time and freedom to do what they want may well be a distortion of the real situation. Because of the perceived lack of financial support for older children; the rigidity of social welfare and benefit systems; and the increasing need to work either on a part time or full time basis, many young people increasingly find themselves with little free leisure time.
48. For younger children the importance of the opportunity for play is seen as a vital element in the healthy growth and development of children but which may well be inhibited by the nature of the physical and social environment of the towns and cities in which many of our children live. Fowler and Dowdall both illustrate the importance of projects which afford young children in disadvantaged areas the opportunity for structured play34 not only as a means to both promoting their healthy growth and development but also to addressing the effects of the social exclusion experienced by many children who live in the more deprived and physically less attractive areas in towns and cities.
2. Current Measures and Policies and the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child.
49. Every member state of the Council of Europe has ratified the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child though it is clear that no country in the world has been able to fully implement the articles in the Convention. Nevertheless many current developments in terms of policies and practices relating to children reflect a commitment to the philosophy inherent in the UN Convention. There is also a degree of convergence between the commitment to the rights of the child and the recognition that if the life experiences of children are to be enhanced and improved then
- measures have to be developed and promoted for all children;
- the earlier the intervention in the lives of children the better;
- resources have to be directed more at preventive measures and policies;
- the distinction between those children who are offenders and those children who are at risk is a thin one;
- measures and policies for children are more effective if they involve a multidisciplinary approach and involve all agencies and bodies concerned with children and young people;
- measures and policies for children and young people have to be based on the actual experiences of children and young people otherwise they may be inappropriate and ineffective.
50. All are premised on the commitment to adopting a child centred approach - the implication being that no one agency alone can meet the needs of children.
The UN Convention on the Rights of the Child relates to all children. It promotes the rights of each and every child irrespective of race, creed, gender etc. Two points have to be made in this respect:
i. Although this report is concerned about children who may be said to have experienced the more negative aspects of urban living, a dynamic social policy can nevertheless not only be for those children. A truly dynamic social policy must also address the needs and promote the rights of all children and adolescents. For example, drug related behaviour and offending is not only associated with children from deprived or disadvantaged areas but is distributed throughout the population of children and young people. Mental health problems of children and adolescents are not simply correlated with poverty and disadvantage. In Central and Eastern Europe the rapid social and economic transformation (and in many cases decline) of many countries has contributed to the mental health difficulties of the young, equally, there are many children from more affluent groups of the community who experience mental health problems, depression and suicidal tendencies. It is not only an economic related phenomenon though more research and information is needed on the factors which predispose those children from more affluent families to offending behaviour, drug associated behaviour and mental health problems. What also has to be of concern is that there is some evidence to suggest that the gap between those from "affluent" and "deprived" or "poor" backgrounds is wider now than ever before. This may well increase social tension and conflict between the different groups and also be reflected in the nature of the environment in which both groups live.
ii. The other point to make is that a dynamic social policy, based on the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child, has to recognise very important gender differences. Many of the policies in the crime and offending field for example have been devised to address the behaviour of boys and less so of girls. The policies and measures developed to deal with young offenders; the development of juvenile justice and the use of custody for young offenders have all been based on very clear gender lines and are clearly male/masculine based policies. A dynamic social policy has to recognise the differences between the life experiences of boys and girls and the way in which the education system, criminal justice system; health system; and labour market all cater ( or fail to cater) for the very different needs of boys and girls. The risks to which girls may be exposed in terms of sexual exploitation and violence; their ability to participate in the educational system and labour market; their ability to make decisions about their own lives; sexuality and futures may vary greatly from boys in terms of their age, economic status of their families; and ethnic membership. One important issue that needs to be addressed is in regard to family planning. As discussed above, this relates not only to girls or boys from deprived backgrounds as the dimension of gender cuts across a number of social groups. A dynamic social policy committed to the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child has to accommodate such important differences.
a. Offending by Children and Young People
51. A number of trends can be identified in the development of crime and delinquency prevention programmes. In particular these include a commitment to early preventive programmes35; the involvement of the community and local authorities in community crime prevention36; the development of non-judicial measures for those who offend37 and the development of community-based alternatives to custody for children38. What is clear is that right across Europe there is a recognition that juvenile justice or criminal justice agencies will of themselves not resolve the problems posed by or experienced by those children who offend or who are at risk of offending and that what is required are programmes that address those factors which are known to put children and communities at risk of offending.
52. Further, in recognition of the importance of community and urban variables in putting children at risk, community programmes demand that resources be provided by both local and central government authorities; that the physical design of the environment be addressed in order to make "safe streets" and that alternative means of dispute resolution be identified. They also of course require the breaking down of traditional boundaries which have in the past separated the work of policing, welfare agencies and the community.
53. Though community-based prevention programmes are perhaps most developed in Western Europe39 many new developments in Central and Eastern Europe and in the Russian Federation reflect the commitment to such initiatives – the attraction being of course that they are considered in the long run more effective and economic in the prevention of crime; are usually one element in a programme of measures for children and of course are an important element in social reconstruction. For example, in Albania, UNICEF has established a Mayors Defenders of Children Programme40; in the Russian Federation, innovative programmes designed to keep children and young people out of custody are being implemented41; the Council of Europe is also seeking to develop community-based programmes for children in Moldova; programmes premised upon a commitment to mediation and restorative justice have been considered in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
54. The main point to be made here is of course that the prevention of offending by children and young people or the reduction of the risk that children will offend will be much enhanced by the development and adequate resourcing of community-based programmes. And, as discussed earlier, since many children and young people are themselves the victims of offences, the net effect of such measures is also to make streets safer for others. Just as important as the reduction of crime is the reduction of the fear of crime.
b. Early Intervention Programmes
55. But early intervention programmes are not simply about the reduction of offending, as already discussed- they have a much broader objective in that they are generally also designed to ensure that children have as positive life experiences from as early as possible. Early prevention programmes are also generally designed to ensure that children have a socially and physically healthy childhood which will prepare them for adulthood and allow them to realise their own and also their community's potential.
56. In particular the recognition of the significant negative effects across Europe of disadvantage and poverty on the lives of children and their families is a prime consideration underpinning programmes such as family support programmes, parenting programmes and programmes which afford children the opportunity to learn and play in a constructive use of their leisure time42. The fact that many such programmes involve the community itself also identifies the importance of "empowerment" of members of communities (including children and young people themselves) and their active involvement in the enhancement of the lives of their children.
c. Education
57. Education and the school clearly have a vital role to play in preparing children for a healthy and fulfilling adulthood; preparing children for the labour market; instilling values of respect for others and for cultural diversity; and in promoting democratic citizenship and the ability of children and young people to play their part in that. What we know is that for some member states even the provision of basic resources is high on the priority as for many children educational facilities – where they do exist – may well lack basic amenities and materials. In that respect the Council of Europe's own programme since 1991 to support the post-communist countries in Central and Eastern Europe to reform their education systems is of particular relevance.
58. In Western Europe policies addressing disadvantage through the education system have attached importance to early provision programmes for pre-school children involving parents and families and identified the school as a vital element in the community and an important resource for developing community based initiatives. In recognising what was referred to earlier as the difficult period of transition to work for many school children – especially those from disadvantaged areas, and also the problem faced by children whose parents cannot allow them to stay on at school for financial reasons, some countries43 have introduced a scheme whereby children are paid to stay on at school to realise the necessary skills and experience to allow them to effectively compete in the labour market.
59. Similarly, the "Lothian Equal Access Programme"44 for Schools provides children and young people from disadvantaged areas with an assisted route into higher education and draws on volunteers from the student population to assist young people in the transition from school to university.
60. What such schemes of course reflect is the way in which the education system can assist children from disadvantaged areas and also reflects a more socially inclusive philosophy. The question that must also be addressed though is whether the education system of European countries can meet the aspirations and skill levels of those children and young people who do not wish or who are not qualified to go to university or higher education. Furlong et al.45 note their concern about the way in which vocational training is less resourced and is somehow seen to be less important.
d. Youth Inclusion Programmes
61. One of the themes in this report is that measures and policies for children and young people cannot simply be the prerogative of one agency or body but requires a multi-agency approach involving children and young people themselves. One of the best examples of such a programme is undoubtedly the "Edinburgh Youth Social Inclusion Partnership"46 which has developed a fully integrated and comprehensive set of projects designed to address the social exclusion of children and young people in all areas which touch their lives – health, housing and homelessness, the environment, leisure, education, employment and training, culture, and crime. The main objective of the programme is achieved by:
- developing means by which mainstream services can meet the needs of young people with experiences or circumstances making them vulnerable to exclusion;
- developing models of inclusive provision;
- work with young people to identify what represents choice within integration and inclusion.
62. Acting as a clearing house and information source, it also provides young people with the necessary information and contacts to allow them more effectively to make decisions about their own lives. What this reflects of course is what a number of reports based on interviews with children and young people clearly illustrate – that children and young people are much more responsible and willing to be involved in social and political life than the stereotypes often held of them suggest47.
e. Participation
63. Article 12 of the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child states that children have a right to express their views and opinions in all matters concerning them. Just as there have been a number of developments in Europe based on the commitment to Article 3 of the Convention which promotes the best interests of the child, so too have there been attempts to develop fora through which children and young people can influence decisions affecting their lives and be more politically active.
64. The example of the Youth Social Inclusion Partnership illustrates the way in which children and young people can responsibly and influentially work in partnership with agencies to address their own situation. Lansdown48 identifies a number of ways in which children and young people can be involved in consultative processes and influence political agendas. These include the presentation by children of the results of a study organised through EURONET at a seminar organised at the European Parliament; a multimedia consultation of children with disabilities with children trained and paid as researchers; youth councils in France (several hundred are in existence) through which young people articulate their concerns to local communities; involvement of children in the discussions about the design of a new children's hospital in the United Kingdom; school councils; Highfield School in the United Kingdom (characterised by high levels of violence, disaffection and bullying) in which the whole school community was involved in the transformation process; and the children' parliament in Slovenia. What is also known is that as many NGOs foster and promote the rights of children across Europe, so too has there grown a body of organisations and agencies run for and by children, on the model of the Article 12 association in the United Kingdom, which involves children in expressing their voice on matters that affect them.
65. The growth of new information and communications technologies has also seen the use of the Internet and the World Wide Web as a significant medium in the provision of information for children and young people and as an important medium through which they can express their views and also coordinate their activities. The power of the Internet is such that even for street children one organisation49 had established a programme of "cascading" computers from large organisations for use by children on the street to assist in their learning, education and participation. What has to be acknowledged though is that there is of course considerable concern at the negative effects of the internet on children through pornography and sexual exploitation generally. This is of course a serious matter but it does not in itself deny the valuable, more positive uses to which the internet can be put as a coordinating tool.
66. The general point that can be made here is that any future developments in policies for children and young people have to recognise the importance of their own contribution to the social and political processes which affect them. Similarly, though there are many examples of ways in which their participation can be enhanced, future agendas will have to explore new innovative methods for their inclusion and participation. The danger, as Lansdown and Hart50 point out, is that children's and young people's involvement can too easily become tokenistic and meaningless unless adults learn to participate fully as well. There is little point in giving children a voice if adults are not prepared to, or do not have the mechanisms, to hear and include what they say.
3. Principles for a Dynamic Social Policy
67. If a dynamic social policy is to be developed which is to meaningfully address the needs, rights and aspirations of children and adolescents in European towns and cities, it must be based upon and incorporate a number of principles – most of which derive from what has been mentioned before in this report. These include:
i. Acknowledgment of the importance of measures and programmes which support parents and families in the parenting role.
Parenting is never an easy experience and providing children with the support and care needed to allow them to grow into healthy adults demands considerable skill and resources on the part of parents. The most powerful means of assisting children is to support their parents, particularly those who for some reason are unable to care for their children on their own in an appropriate way. Thus, the groundwork can be better prepared for children to realise their potential as individuals and later at school and in the labour market. Such support can also assist children to grow up with an approach to resolving personal and family differences independently which does not involve resorting to violence and aggressive tactics.
ii. Recognition that measures for parents and families at the local level have to be assisted by appropriate forms of support, through welfare and benefits schemes at governmental and national levels.
Support for parents and families can be provided by local authorities, voluntary organisations etc., but consideration has to be given to the way in which the state supports families financially through the welfare and social benefits system. For many countries in Central and Eastern Europe, the situation of children and families has become more difficult with the collapse of the welfare and benefits systems.
iii. The promotion of measures and policies based on partnership of and the involvement of all sectors, local and national, public and private; and members of the community.
One of the key themes emphasised in this report has been that of "partnership", based on a commitment to the view that no single agency or authority will by itself be able to address adequately all those factors which put children and adolescents at risk. The involvement or "inclusion" of members of the community cannot be emphasised enough as an important element not only in reducing social exclusion and marginalisation but also in making policies more effective through local ownership.
iv. The recognition that the risks faced by children affect many areas of their lives and that responses and measures should address the whole range of risks faced in the social and physical environment of the towns and cities in which they live
Any policy for children and adolescents has to address the range of risk factors faced by our young people. This of course by definition requires that many of the barriers and obstacles to co-operation between agencies have to be addressed and identified in order to develop a truly coherent approach based on a common set of objectives.
v. The need to develop, for children who offend, alternative forms of dispute resolution; alternatives to judicial processes; alternatives to custody; and community based measures in line with internationally recognised standards for children in the justice system51
The European and international criminological literature points to the failure of the custody system for young offenders and the importance of developing alternatives, not simply to custody, but to criminal justice intervention itself. The development of approaches to a policy of crime prevention based more on a social policy philosophy is seen to provide the basis for policies which are more effective; more cost effective; more meaningful for the young person and his community and which are in line with the principles embodied in the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child.
vi. The importance of the school in preparing children for adulthood and their role in civic and political society; in promoting values of tolerance and respect for others; and in addressing inequalities based on disadvantage and gender.
Schools are not simply a means of preparing children for the labour market but can also achieve other aims in the socialisation process of children and as the "FARE" project shows, are a focal point for the community.
vii. The need to assist children and young people in the transition from school to employment and to provide them with the skills necessary for the labour market
When children leave school, they encounter one of the most difficult periods in their lives as they seek to determine a career for themselves and enter into the labour market. Any dynamic social policy has to recognise the importance of this period in the development of our young people and preparing them for their adult lives.
viii. Recognition of the importance of leisure pursuits for children.
For young children, playing is very important in assisting them to develop many of the social, personal and interpersonal skills which they will need later in their lives. Leisure pursuits in general are very important for children and adolescents in allowing them to develop physically and socially. Although such facilities are often provided, the quality is poor in many cases.
ix. The importance of programmes and projects which assist children and young people address the negative effects of social exclusion and marginalisation.
Social exclusion and marginalisation are highly correlated with the failure of children to reach their potential and the risk that they demonstrate more negative forms of behaviour. Involving children meaningfully in social life also implies finding new ways of including them in decision making processes and allowing them to participate in key policy developments.
x. The recognition that there are serious resource constraints for some member states in the Council of Europe in developing and implementing new and innovative programmes.
The economic situation of some countries does not allow them to fully develop a dynamic social policy for children and adolescents. Although the promotion of a rights based strategy demands resources, in the long run it is a cost effective way to enhance the life experiences of children and to contribute to the growth of a healthy society.
xi. Economies in transition.
Although in countries going through rapid social and economic transition, children and young people may be particularly disadvantaged, there are nevertheless many policies and practices in relation to children which should not be rejected. In particular, the role of the extended family can be identified as an important factor in the experiences of many children in Central and Eastern Europe.
xii. A commitment to the promotion and implementation of the rights of children and young people in accordance with the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child. Further, the importance of establishing mechanisms by which policies affecting all areas of social and political life - employment, housing, crime, health, education etc - can be "child proofed".
The UN Convention on the Rights of the Child through the promotion of children's rights promotes the importance of positive life experiences for all children. The Convention demands that these rights be recognised in all areas of social, civil and political life. For this reason it is important that mechanisms are established which ensure that policies in all areas are consistent with a commitment to children's rights and to the importance of positive life experiences.
xiii. The need for countries to promote the rights of children and to monitor their implementation through the offices of a Child Ombudsman or Children's Rights Commissioner52
The setting up of a Child Ombudsman or a Children's Rights Commissioner would greatly assist in promoting the rights of children and in enhancing the life experiences of all children irrespective of race, creed, class, gender etc. There are many different models in different countries of such offices and it is important to ensure that as much knowledge and information about the most appropriate model is gathered and made available.
xiv. The need for the Council of Europe to establish a European Child Ombudsman to oversee policies and developments which impact the lives of children in Europe.53
The establishment of a European Child Ombudsman is a recommendation of the Parliamentary Assembly.
xv. The recognition of the positive values of the Internet; the World Wide Web; and the new information communications technologies (ICTs) in providing information for children and young people and in providing a mechanism for co-ordination of their activities.
The Internet can be criticised for the negative effects on children. Nevertheless, the Internet is a cost effective medium to be deployed in online training; exchanging appropriate child related professional expertise; and in providing many children with easy access to information. Though there is an uneven distribution in Europe across countries and across economic groups, the internet will become an increasingly important information provider for children. Consideration should be given to developing the use of the Internet as an information gathering and exchange mechanism on child related issues and policies for the Council of Europe.
xvi. In recognition of the changing situation of children, young people and the countries in which they live, there is a need for up-to-date comprehensive and pan-European information on the lives and experiences of children in order to better form future policies and practices which affect them.
Policies designed to improve the experiences of children or to cope with the threats they pose to society often fail. These failures can very often be attributed to the fact that the policies bear no relation to the actual experiences of children. It is therefore important to gather as much information as possible about the actual life experiences, local policies and measures taken, because policies which may work and be successful in one country or one region may not be particularly effective in others.
xvii. The participation of children and adolescents in the decision making process and policy development.
Article 12 of the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child emphasises the right of the child to be involved in all decisions affecting his/her life. A dynamic social policy has to provide a possibility for children to meaningfully participate in the decision making process and has to identify new and innovative ways to achieve this goal.
Conclusion
This report of the Council of Europe is one further effort to improve the situation of children and adolescents. Together with other international organisations, the Council of Europe will continue its work in this area, but will greatly rely on the member states to implement and realize policies and measures discussed.
Reporting committee: Social, Health and Family Affairs Committee
Reference to committee: Doc. 8142 and Reference No. 2306 of 22 June 1998
Draft recommendation adopted by the committee on 3 September 2001 (with 20 votes for, 5 against and 3 abstentions).
Members of the committee: Mrs Ragnarsdóttir (Chairman), Mr Hegyi, Mrs Gatterer, Mr Christodoulides (Vice-Chairs), Mrs Albrink, MM. Alís Font, Arnau, Mrs Belohorská, Mrs Biga-Friganovic, Mr Bilovol (alternate: Stozhenko), Mrs Björnemalm, MM. Brînzan, Brunhart, Cerrahoğlu, Cesário, Cox, Dees, Dhaille, Dzasokhov, Evin, Flynn, Ms Gamzatova, MM. Gibula, Glesener, Goldberg (alternate: Michel), Gregory, Gül, Gusenbauer, Gustafsson, Haack, Hancock, Herrera, Mrs Hřegh, Mr Hörster (alternate: Hornung), Ms Jäger, Mrs Jirousová, Mr Kitov, Baroness Knight, Ms Lakhova, Mr Liiv, Ms Lotz, Ms Luhtanen, Mr Manukyan, Mrs Markovska, MM. Marmazov, Martelli, Marty (alternate: Schmied), Mattei, Monfils, Mularoni, Naydenov, Olekas, Ouzký, Padilla, Mrs Paegle, MM. Pavlidis, Podobnik, Popa, Poroshenko (alternate: Khunov), Poty, Mrs Pozza Tasca, MM. Provera, Rizzi (alternate: Cioni), Seyidov, Mrs Shakhtakhtinskaya, Mrs Smereczynska, Mr Smirlis, Mrs Stefani, MM. Surján, Telek, Ms Tevdoradze, Mrs Troncho, MM. Tudor, Vella, Mrs Vermot-Mangold, MM. Vos, Wójcik, Zidu.
NB: The names of those members present at the meeting are printed in italics.
Secretaries to the committee: Mr Newman, Ms Meunier and Ms Karanjac
1 Every member state of the Council of Europe has ratified the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child. For the purposes of this report a "child" is defined as being below 18 years of age as stated in the Convention.
2 Micklewright, J. and Stewart, K. Is Child Welfare Converging in the European Union?, Innocenti Occasional Papers, Economic and Social Policy Series No59, Florence 1999.
3 William Ryan, Blaming the Victim, Orbacjh and Chambers, London, 1971
4 See ed. Zouev, A. "Generation in Jeopardy, Children in Central and Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union, UNICEF, 1999 and also Monee Regional Monitoring Report, No 7. "Young People in Changing Societies", UNICEF, Florence 2000.
5 See, for example, in reference to the UK, www.cpag.org.uk
6 Asquith, 2000
7 http://www.unesco.org/most/guic/guicmain.htm
8 Security and crime prevention in cities: setting up a European observatory, Report of the Committee on the Environment and Agriculture, Rapporteur: Mr Jean-Marie Bockel, Doc. 9173, 11 July 2001
9 For more detail on Communities that Care go to http://www.cp.state.pa.us/
10 See Social Research Bulletin Number 2, http://www.scotland.gov.uk/library2/doc07/sir02-00.htm
11 Crime and urban insecurity in Europe: the role of local authorities CLRAE Recommendation 80 (2000) Draft reply (CM/Del/Dec(2000)719/12.1 and (2001)744/1.1, CM(2000)100 and 186 Addendum), http://www.cm.coe.int/dec/2001/745/126.htm
12 For information on FARE go to www.fare.org.uk. Particularly interesting is the book produced by members of the community relaying their experiences in a deprived area and the benefits of FARE.
13 Souffrances et Violences ŕ l'Adolescence; synthčse du Rapport remis ŕ Claude Bartolone, Ministre Délégué ŕ la Ville, November 2000
14 For a comparison of the Redergard and Bulger Case see, Asquith, S. "When children kill children, International Journal of Childhood, 1998
15 See Cappelaere, G et al. Report on Juvenile Justice in Albania, UNICEF, 2000
16 Standards embodied e.g. in the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child, the UN Guidelines for the Prevention of Juvenile Delinquency (The Riyadh Guidelines), the UN Standard Minimum Rules for the Administration of Juvenile Justice (The Beijing Rules) and the UN Rules for the Protection of Juveniles Deprived of their Liberty.
17 It is important to differentiate between those children who live on the streets and those who may live at home but live “off" the streets in the sense of earning a living, legally or illegally.
18 See Baudouin Foundation, Street Children and Children on the Streets, 2000
19 Sidorenko-Stevenson, S. "The Abandoned Children of Russia- from privileged class to underclass, SSEES, London, November 1998
20 See Baudouin Foundation, Street Children and Children on the Streets, 2000
21 Asquith, S.: Notes from a Council of Europe mission to Russian Federation.
22 "Street Children; Children on the Streets" Baudouin Foundation , Page 37-38 and page 73-79, 2000
23 This section draws on ed. Zouev, A. "Generation in Jeopardy, Children in Central and Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union", Part II, UNICEF, 1999 and also Monee Regional Monitoring Report, No 7. "Young People in Changing Societies, UNICEF, Florence 2000
24 See Child Poverty Action Group briefings at www.cpag.org.uk
25 ed. Zouev, A. "Generation in Jeopardy, Children in Central and Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union", UNICEF, 1999, page 31.
26 Ed. Furlong, A. "Vulnerable Youth: perspectives on vulnerability in Education, employment and leisure In Europe", European Youth Trends 2000, Council of Europe Publishing. 2000.
27 Newsletter, University of Glasgow, 30th March, 2001.
28 See www.leaps.ed.ac.uk for a description of a programme designed to address the more negative aspects of disadvantage on educational attainment.
29 Education for democratic citizenship: Examples of good practice in member States, Directorate of Youth and Sport, Council of Europe, http://www.coe.fr/postsummit/citizenship/practices/exemples.bil.html The significance of this publication is that as well as identifying good practices in member states in Western Europe, this document also points to good practice in a number of countries in Central and Eastern Europe including Albania, Croatia, Hungary, Lithuania, Slovakia, and Ukraine.
30 The European Commission against Racism and Intolerance (ECRI) - new reports on Albania, Austria, Denmark, "the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia" and the United Kingdom, Council of Europe Website www.coe.int ,April 3rd 2001
31 Especially in countries in Central and Eastern Europe
32 Ed. Furlong, A. "Vulnerable Youth: perspectives on vulnerability in Education, employment and leisure In Europe", European Youth Trends 2000, Council of Europe Publishing. 2000, page 5.
33 Ed. Furlong, A. "Vulnerable Youth: perspectives on vulnerability in Education, employment and leisure In Europe", European Youth Trends 2000, Council of Europe Publishing. 2000, page 51.
34 See Fowler, K. "The Jeely Piece Club", Honours Dissertation, University of Glasgow. 2001 and also Dowdall, B. "Govan Pals", Honours Dissertation, University of Glasgow, 2001.
35 See Asquith, S, Buist, et al, "Children, Young People and Offending" for a comprehensive review of crime prevention programmes, early intervention programmes and family support programmes., The Scottish Office 1998.
36 See "Examples of Community Crime Prevention Programmes", United Nations Congress on the Prevention of Crime and the Treatment of Offenders, Vienna, April 2000.
37 See Juvenile Justice, Innocenti Digest
38 See Walgrave, L. and Mehlbye, J. Confronting Youth in Europe, AKF, Denmark, 1998
39 See Walgrave, L. and Mehlbye, J. Confronting Youth in Europe, AKF, Denmark, 1998
40 Albania- Annual Report, UNICEF, 1999
41 Westwater, G. "Throughcare Services to Vulnerable children returning to the Community from Closed Institutions, draft Report 2001.
42 For good examples of programmes designed to address the difficulties faced by children and young people in their communities see the report on "Strategic and Technical Assistance Public Safety for Countries, Regions and Cities, International Crime Prevention Centre, www.crime-prevention-intl.org/english/assistance/index.html
43 See in particular The Scotsman, March 2001 in which it reports on the decision of the Scottish Parliament to provide some children with an allowance to stay on at school. The argument made by the Minister Wendy Alexander is that such a small outlay far outweighs the cost when the earning and social potential for the children concerned is taken into consideration.
44 See www.leaps.ed.ac.uk
45 Ed. Furlong, A. "Vulnerable Youth: perspectives on vulnerability in education, employment and leisure In Europe", European Youth Trends 2000, Council of Europe Publishing. 2000,
47 See for example Vulnerable Youth: perspectives on Vulnerability in Education, employment and Leisure in Europe, European Youth Trends 2000, Council of Europe
48 See Lansdown, G. "Promoting Children's Participation in Democratic Decision-making”
49 Eurokids is a pan-european organisation dedicated to assisting and supporting children who find themselves living on or off the streets. The proposal for internet access was discussed at a meeting of the Council of Baltic Sea States project on "Children at Risk" in Visby, September 1999.
50 Hart, R. "Children's Participation: tokenism and rhetoric", Innocenti Child Development Centre, UNICEF
51 Standards embodied e.g. in the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child, the UN Guidelines for the Prevention of Juvenile Delinquency (The Riyadh Guidelines), the UN Standard Minimum Rules for the Administration of Juvenile Justice (The Beijing Rules) and the UN Rules for the Protection of Juveniles Deprived of their Liberty
52 See http://www.ombudsnet.org for a comprehensive statement of the role and work of Child Ombudsmen in Europe.
53 See Parliamentary Assembly Recommendation 1460 (2000) Setting up a European ombudsman for children