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For debate in the Standing Committee see Rule 47
Pour débat à la Commission permanente – Voir article 47 du Règlement
Doc. 8167
9 July 1998
Fine-particle emissions and human health
Report
Committee on Science and Technology
Rapporteur: Mr Martti Tiuri, Finland, European Democratic Group
Summary
New research results show that almost invisible, airborne fine particles smaller than 2.5 thousandths of a millimetre are a major health risk. They penetrate directly into lungs and cause allergies, and cardiovascular and respiratory diseases. They are responsible for deaths of infants and adults. At the levels presently common in cities and countryside in Europe fine particles cause hundreds of thousands hospital visits and tens of thousands, perhaps even hundreds of thousands deaths each year.
Fine particles are produced by burning coal, oil, natural gas, wood and other biomasses and by internal combustion engines, especially diesel. The lifetime of fine particles in the atmosphere is days or weeks, and they can travel by air thousands of kilometres. Most urban and other densely populated areas are covered by fine-particle pollution spread hundreds of kilometres in width and 100-3000 metres in height.
These severe health effects make it necessary to reduce fine-particle emissions. They can be reduced by switching to power plants producing fewer fine particles or to plants which do not produce fine particles. Fine-particle pollution caused by traffic will decrease by giving preference to cars with catalytic converters and in cities to buses using gas. Electric cars are advantageous.
According to the Commission of the European Union illnesses and deaths caused by fine particles cost the European Union 5000 to 51000 million ecus annually. The Commission has presented a proposal for a directive to reduce fine-particle pollution. At present, fine-particle pollution is below the proposed limit only in Northern Europe. Member countries of the Council of Europe must consider means to reduce fine-particle pollution.
I. Draft recommendation
1. Fine-particle emissions produce air pollution which is dangerous to health. The pollution is responsible for cardiovascular and respiratory illnesses and deaths of children and adults. It is probable that each year in Europe hundreds of thousands of hospital admissions and tens of thousands or even hundreds of thousands of deaths are caused by fine particles. These severe health effects make it necessary to reduce fine-particle emissions.
2. Energy produced by the burning of coal, oil, natural gas, wood and biomasses as well as internal combustion motors are the main sources of fine-particle emissions. Energy use, production and transportation methods and technologies must be improved to limit fine-particle emissions.
3. Fine particles penetrate directly into the lungs and contaminate them. However, the connection between fine particles and the illnesses caused by them, is not yet known. More scientific research is needed to explain the effects and to find out which fine particles are the most dangerous.
4. The Assembly therefore recommends that the Committee of Ministers:
a. review its work programme in the health field with a view to including relevant aspects of fine particles and public health;
b. call on member countries, the European Union, the World Health Organisation and the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe to:
i. accept the latest research results and hence consider that fine particles (particles smaller than 2.5 thousandths of a millimetre or PM2.5) constitute a major cause of ill health;
ii. expand the measurement and monitoring of fine particles in order to obtain necessary information about the level of fine-particle pollution;
iii. promote research on the emission, formation, content and distribution of fine particles in the atmosphere;
iv. promote studies of the relationship between personal doses of fine particles and ill health;
v. increase research on the short and long-term health effects caused by exposure to fine particles with a view to gaining knowledge about the mechanisms involved and the relative harmfulness of different types of fine particles;
vi. apply the "As-Low-As-Reasonably-Achievable" (ALARA) principle when reducing fine-particle pollution;
vii. support research and development of clean-coal technology and other technologies for energy production which help to reduce fine-particle emissions;
viii. promote the switch to less-polluting energy sources and to energy sources causing no fine-particle emissions;
ix. promote the use of cars with catalytic converters and city buses using gas as fuel;
x. support the research, development and use of electric cars and other vehicles which will reduce fine-particle emissions.
II. Explanatory memorandum by Mr Martti Tiuri
CONTENTS
Paragraph numbers
I. Introduction 1-6
II. Health aspects of fine-particle emissions
a. Fine particles and their penetration into the lungs 7 – 16
b. Short-term health effects 17 – 21
c. Long-term health effects 22 – 29
III. Fine-particle emissions: sources and concentrations
a. Sources of fine particles 30 – 38
b. Concentrations of fine particles 39 – 49
IV. Reduction of fine-particle emissions
a. Reduction of emissions 50 – 55
b. Directives for fine-particle pollution 56 – 65
I. INTRODUCTION
1. It has become apparent in recent years that fine particles, mainly generated by combusion processes and suspended in the air constitute a major health hazard. Research results indicate that in Europe fine particles cause hundreds of thousands of cases of illness and hospital visits each year and tens of thousands, perhaps even hundreds of thousands, of deaths. These suspended particles cause allergies, asthma, cardiovascular and respiratory illnesses and even increase the incidence of cancers.
2. According to the latest research results, particles smaller than 2.5 thousandths of a millimetre (PM2.5, Particulate Matter 2.5) are especially dangerous. When inhaled, they go all the way into the pulmonary alveoli, the air cells of the lung, whereas larger particles are trapped in the nose and throat and are therefore not so dangerous.
3. PM2.5 particles are produced by power stations and internal combusion engines and in general when material is burned. Some of them are solid soot or carbon particles emitted into the atmosphere from combustion processes, and to which many kinds of toxic compounds have attached themselves. Part of the fine particles are created in the atmosphere when nitrogen and sulphur emissions are converted into acidic particles, i.e. nitrates and sulphates. They can be carried thousands of kilometres by air currents and deposited evenly over large areas as air pollution. In urban areas, traffic emissions increase local concentrations of fine particles.
4. Epidemiological studies indicate that temporary high concentrations of fine particles, i.e. episodes lasting a day or two, increase morbidity and hospitalisations as well as deaths in direct proportion to the rise in the pollution level. The latest studies indicate that long-term exposure to fine particles increases mortality in direct proportion to concentration. At the concentrations of fine particles commonly recorded nowadays, mortality increases several percent.
5. The detrimental impact on health of fine particles is so great that action to reduce them is essential. There are now European standards for total suspended particles (TSP) and standards of PM10 particles, (i.e. particles less than 10 thousandths of a millimetre in size) are under consideration. Most TSP particles and perhaps a half of PM10 particles originate in the soil and are not as dangerous as PM2.5 ones. The work of monitoring PM2.5 particles and drafting standards, setting permissible concentrations, must now begin.
6. The rapporteur wishes to express his deep gratitude to Mr Matti Jantunen, from the National Public Health Institute, Department of Environmental Hygiene, Kuopio, Finland, for his assistance in the preparation of the following Part II on health aspects of fine-particle emissions.
II. HEALTH ASPECTS OF FINE-PARTICLE EMISSIONS
a. Fine particles and their penetration into the lungs
7. Fine particulate matter, suspended in ambient air, has become a major interest of environmental health-risk assessment. Recent studies have shown that differences in the present levels of outdoor, airborne particulate matter in many European and North American cities are associated with suprisingly large differences in mortality and morbidity. The mortality increase appears to be caused by extremely small doses and occurs more as cardiovascular and less as respiratory and cancer mortality. There is not yet a medical explanation for the observed effects.
8. The terms used for describing particulate air pollution are TSP, abbreviated from Total Suspended Matter, PM10 referring to particulate matter with particle sizes less than 10 thousandths of a millimetre, and PM2.5 with particle sizes less than 2.5 thousandths of a millimetre. PM2.5 are called fine particles. Concentrations are given in microgrammes per cubic metre (µg/m3).
9. Most of PM2.5 originate from combustion processes (see chapter III.a, Sources of fine particles) and are smaller than one thousandth of a millimetre. PM10 has two fractions, fine particles (PM2.5) and coarse PM10 particles. Most of the coarse particles are soil and road-dust particles with sizes of 3-10 thousandths of a millimetre. Their mass is greatly variable. Typically PM2.5 is 0.4-0.7 PM10.
10. Laymen call clouds of particulate matter smoke, fume, haze or dust and physicists refer to them as aerosols. Fine particles can be identified visually by observing the cloud in sunshine. PM2.5 clouds scatter sunlight forwards and are therefore only visible when viewed against the sun. In contrast coarser particles scatter (reflect) light backwards, and are therefore only visible when the sun comes from behind the observer.
11. Most urban areas and densely inhabited regions are covered by widespread pollution haze which can extend over hundreds of kilometres in width and 100 m- 3 km in height. The pollution is difficult to detect from within, but becomes quite visible when viewed from aeroplanes or mountains.
12. Fine particles (PM2.5) have very low settling velocity in air. They stick to any surface that they happen to hit. The average atmospheric lifetime of fine particles is long, days to weeks, and they can travel with air currents thousands of kilometres. The levels of PM2.5 in the air can be fairly uniform over areas extending over hundreds of kilometres.
13. TSP concentrations have been monitored for a long time, but those important to health aspects are PM10 and especially PM2.5. In the last decade large numbers of measurements of PM10 and to a lesser extent PM2.5 have been carried out in the USA. In Europe PM10 measurements were started in the 1990's and PM2.5 measurements are only just starting now. Typical average annual concentrations of PM2.5 in the USA and Europe are 10-40 microgrammes per cubic metre.
14. Heavy air-pollution episodes can occur in atmospheric inversion situations. These episodes are caused by the accumulation of pollution from local sources in no-wind conditions. The episodic average 24 hour PM2.5 concentrations can be several times higher than the annual average and can last 1-3 days.
15. Fine particles manage to penetrate through most ventilation systems into indoor environments. In the absence of indoor sources the indoor PM2.5 concentrations reflect the outdoor levels. Tobacco smoking, cooking and unvented kerosene heaters increase indoor air concentrations of fine particles. Studies of personal PM exposures indicate that average smoking doubles the non-smoking indoor levels.
16. Particles larger than 10 thousandths of a millimetre do not penetrate into the lungs. Fine particles (PM2.5) enter into the alveoli, and about half of them are not exhaled. Particles between 2.5 and 10 thousandths of a millimetre show an intermediate behaviour that depends strongly on breathing type (mouth or nose) and intensity. If insoluble, fine particles are only quite slowly removed from the lung tissues.
b. Short-term health effects
17. The health hazard of fine particles in the air has been identified in a number of short-term effect studies. These studies show a strong correlation between air pollution episodes and increases of daily hospital admissions as well as daily death rates.
18. Studies of dust storms, where very high PM10 concentration episodes have occurred, indicate that the health-effect of natural dust is much smaller than that of combustion particles. The most recent studies show that PM2.5 is generally a better indicator of health effects than PM10.
19. The health effects of PM10 and PM2.5 episodes have been especially studied in the USA. In European studies (e.g. APHEA) PM10 and TSP have been considered. There is a striking concurrence between these different studies in the increase of daily death rate, asthma symptoms, disease and hospitalisation data.
20. All data relating to the death rate with air pollution levels in this report have been corrected for other factors that also affect the death rate, such as weather, season, ethnicity, age, gender, smoking, socioeconomic factors etc.
21. Table I.1 shows the conclusions reached by the World Health Organisation (WHO Air Quality Guidelines for Europe) on the health effects of pollution episodes. Effects increase linearly with the concentration. Increases of 50 µg/m3 in PM2.5 concentrations can occur a few times per year causing a 15 percent increase in daily deaths.
Table I.1 Short-term health effects of fine-particle episodes (Commission of the European Communities Proposal for a Council - Directive COM(97) 500 final; Table 9)
Increase of daily mortality with increases of 1.5%
10 µg/m3 in a concentration of PM2.5
Increase of some indicators with increases
of 10 µg/m3 in a concentration of PM10:
daily mortality 0.7%
lower respiratory symptoms 3.5%
hospital admissions (respir.) 0.84%
c. Long-term health effects
22. Study results on the effects of long-term exposure to fine particles are only available from the USA, fig. II.1 (Annex I). In a prospective cohort study a survival analysis was conducted with data from a 14-16 year mortality (in 1974-1991) follow-up of 8111 adults in six USA cities. The adjusted annual mortality increase for the most polluted of the cities as compared with the least polluted was 26 percent. The mortality increase was most strongly associated with air pollution of fine particles (annual average pollution range from 11 to 30 µg/m3).
23. In another study, annual air pollution data in 1980 from 51 USA metropolitan areas was linked with individual risk factors on over half a million adults. Deaths were ascertained from 1982 to 1989. The adjusted annual increase of mortality from all causes for the most polluted areas, as compared with the least polluted, equalled 17 percent. The annual average fine-particle pollution (range from 9 to 34 µg/m3) was associated with cardiopulmonary and lung cancer mortality but not with mortality due to other causes.
24. Nearly 4 million infants born between 1989 and 1991 were involved in a long-term pollution study in 86 metropolitan areas in the USA. The death records of infants from 1 to 12 months old were compared with mean PM10 pollution during the 2 first months of each infant's life. The adjusted mortality increase for the high-exposure versus the low-exposure group was 10 percent. It was associated with respiratory causes. The mortality of sudden-death syndrome increased 24 percent.
25. The epidemiological studies described above do not indicate any threshold level below which fine-particle exposure could be considered safe. It can thus be assumed that adverse health effects start to appear from zero concentration and grow linearly with the annual average concentration of fine particles.
26. When considering the mortality caused by ionising radiation, it is customary to assume that mortality starts to increase linearly with the radiation dose as soon as the dose rises from zero, fig. II.2 (Annex II). This is accepted even though it has been possible to detect radiation effects only on relatively large doses. A similar procedure is proposed above when considering mortality increase due to fine-particle exposure.
27. WHO estimates based on U.S. studies show that an increase of 10 microgrammes in annual concentration of PM2.5 increases deaths by 10 percent (Table 12, European Union Council Proposal). Because long-term effect studies do not contain all the possible age cohorts, it will be estimated cautiously that an increase of 10 microgrammes in fine-particle annual concentration increases annual mortality by 5 %, fig II.3 (Annex II). There is no information about the concentration caused by natural particles.
28. If the information in figure II.3 is accepted, it indicates that already in the cleanest city in the USA, with fine-particle concentration of 10 µg/m3, mortality has increased 5 % due to fine particles partly from natural sources. The annual radiation dose of 10 millisieverts (mSv) is as dangerous as an annual exposition to 10 µg/m3 of fine particles. Man-made annual radiation doses are very seldom as high as 10 mSv. In contrast man-made fine-particle concentrations are almost always higher than 10 µg/m3.
29. As an example, according to WHO the average annual radiation dose of 270,000 people living in the strictly controlled zones of Ukraine and Belarus, where the Chernobyl fallout has caused the highest radiation, is 1 mSv (life-time dose 60 mSv). This dose increases mortality by 0.5 %. In Finland the annual natural average radiation dose is 3.1 mSv causing an annual mortality increase of 1.5 %.
III. FINE-PARTICLE EMISSIONS: SOURCES AND CONCENTRATIONS
a. Sources of fine-particle emissions
30. The combustion of fossil fuels, wood and other biomasses emits directly into the air one type of fine particles, namely small carbon particles. Different poisonous combustion compounds, heavy metals and minerals are attached to these particles.
31. Combustion also produces a second type of fine particles, namely solid and liquid acidic sulphate and nitrate particles. They are transformed in the air from suphur-dioxide emissions and from nitrogen-oxide emissions. The size of sulphate and nitrate particles is 0.1-1 thousandths of a millimetre. How large a part of the emissions is transformed into fine particles depends on the climate and the altitude of the emission source. Roughly about half of the emissions is transformed into fine particles.
32. The fine-particle emissions of power plants depend on the type of fuel, and the efficiency of the burning and of filters. The majority of the particles in the smoke-gases are removed by filters, but the major part of solid fine particles gets into the air. The amount of sulphur emissions depends on the sulphur content of the fuel. Nitrogen emissions are determined by the burning temperature. The higher the temperature the higher the emissions.
33. Fine-particle emissions from modern power plants can be determined assuming that half of the sulphur-dioxide emissions and half of the nitrogen-oxide emissions are transformed into fine particles. The largest amount of fine particles comes from coal and oil plants. Nearly 10000 tons of fine particles are produced per 10 terawatthours (TWh) of electricity (the amount of electricity produced in a year by a large nuclear plant). Power plants using biomass fuel produce half of that amount and natural gas plants one third, fig. III.1 (Annex II).
34. Small power stations produce relatively more fine particles due to less effective filters. Small-scale wood burning in fire places and stoves can produce great quantities of fine particles.
35. Internal combustion engines emit fine particles directly into the air from exhaust pipes and indirectly through sulphur-dioxide and nitrogen-oxide emissions. Cars with a three-way catalytic converter produce very few fine particles due to an almost complete elimination of carbon particles and nitrogen emissions. Cars without a converter produce many times more fine particles.
36. Diesel engines produce fine particles abundantly. The worst sources of fine particles in cities are diesel buses and trucks. The number of passengers in a diesel bus should be about 50 in order to keep the proportion of fine particles per passenger the same as a car with converter, fig. III.2 (Annex II).
37. Agricultural tilting and wind erosion produce some fine particles in addition to coarse soil particles. Road dust contains a small amount of fine particles. Dairy farming and the use of fertilizers produce ammonium emissions into the air which are transformed into ammonium fine particles.
38. A small part of sulphate and nitrate fine particles stem from natural sulphur-dioxide emissions from volcanoes and nitrogen-oxide emissions caused i.a. by lightning. Sea waves produce salt particles.
b. Concentrations of fine particles
39. Depending on the height of chimney stacks fine particles from power plants come near the surface only at a distance of several kilometres. Fine particles from smaller power plants appear closer to the plant. Wood burning in densely populated areas can cause a high local concentration of fine particles.
40. Fine-particle concentrations in rural areas are usually due to long-range transport from power plants. In cities an additional and greatly varying component is caused by traffic. On average this addition can be more than one third. Carbon fine particles from exhaust pipes increase directly the local concentration, but the transformation of nitrogen oxides to nitrate particles takes some time. Hence there are more nitrate particles further away. In densely populated areas, as in the Netherlands, fine-particle concentration is the same almost everywhere.
41. The share of fine particles due to energy production depends on how large a part of energy is produced by fossil fuels and biomass. In Sweden and France the share of fine particles due to energy is smaller than that of traffic and also the total amount of fine particles per head is smaller, due to the large share of hydro and nuclear power in energy production, fig. III.3 (Annex III).
42. According to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) of the USA the total amount of fine-particle emission in 1990 in the USA was 55 million tons, of which energy production caused 58 %, traffic 21 %, industrial processes 6 % and agriculture, erosion and road dust 15 %.
43. Unusual weather conditions, inversions, in cities cause temporary high air pollution episodes lasting one or two days. These episodes are mainly due to fine particles, produced by traffic, cumulating below the inversion layer. The result is a manifold concentration as compared to the normal situation. Chimney stacks of nearby power stations usually reach above the inversion layer, and hence their fine-particle emissions will not cumulate.
44. According to observations, indoor concentrations of fine particles correlate well with outdoor concentrations, when no additional indoor sources such as tobacco smoke are present. On the other hand the correlation between indoor PM10 concentrations and outdoor concentrations is not very high.
45. Up to now measurements of PM2.5 have barely started in Europe. There are some more measurements of PM10. However, they do not give direct information about the danger caused by fine particles because a variable amount of coarse soil particles is included in PM10. In the USA the average PM2.5 concentration has been 0.6xPM10 concentration, but variations are large.
46. In the USA PM2.5 measurements started in the 1980's. In the cleanest cities the annual average PM2.5 concentration has been 9-10 µg/m3. In the most polluted cities the annual average concentration has been over 30 µg/m3.
47. In Europe the estimate based on the PM10 measurements, is that the annual average PM2.5 concentrations vary from 10 µg to 60 µg/m3, fig. III.4 (Annex III).
48. Table II.1 shows the average PM10 concentrations and estimated PM2.5 concentrations during 2-3 months in the winter 1993-94 in several European cities and nearby rural areas (PEACE study). The annual averages are probably somewhat lower. The rural measurement point was on the average at a distance of some tens of kilometres from the city. In rural areas the PM10 concentration was on average 22 % lower.
49. On Sundays the observed PM10 concentration was on average 20 % smaller, propably due to lesser traffic. During pollution episodes the average daily concentrations were 1.5-2.5 times higher than the 2-3 month average values. Corresponding differences can be expected in PM2.5 concentrations.
Table II.1 Measured winter time 2-3 month average 1993/1994 PM10 and estimated PM2.5 concentrations (assuming PM2.5 = 0.6 PM10) Ref. PEACE study
PM10 urban/rural PM2.5 urban/rural
Umeå 13/12 µg/m3 8/7 µg/m3
Malmö 23/16 14/10
Oslo 19/11 11/7
Kuopio 18/14 11/8
Amsterdam 42/45 25/27
Berlin 52/43 31/26
Hettstedt 42/31 25/19
Katowice 63/74 36/44
Cracow 59/56 35/34
Prague 53/50 32/30
Teplice 75/33 45/20
Pisa 62/70 38/42
Athens 99/50 59/30
IV. REDUCTION OF FINE-PARTICLE EMISSIONS
a. Reduction of emissions
50. The severe health effects necessitate a reduction of fine particle pollution. Fine-particle emissions from power plants can be reduced by switching to power plants producing less fine particles or to plants which do not produce fine particles at all, fig. III.1 (Annex II).
51. In addition to fuel selection the production of fine particles can be decreased using new technologies. The emissions of fine particles from coal, oil and biomass plants will reduce significantly by applying gasification (e.g. clean coal technology), which is under development. Nitrate particles of these and natural gas plants could be reduced by developing converters to decrease nitrogen oxide emissions. However, as a result the cost of energy will increase.
52. Hydro power and nuclear power are advantageous because they do not produce fine particles. In addition they do not emit carbon dioxide which is the main green-house gas causing climate change. Also wind energy and solar power do not cause fine-particle pollution, but it will take tens of years before they can help significantly, fig. IV.5 (Annex III).
53. Recently in an research article published in the medical journal Lancet it was shown that if it is possible to reduce carbon-dioxide emission on average by 15% before 2010 by decreasing the use of fossil fuel, fine-particle pollution will decrease so much that 8 million deaths could be avoided in the years 2000-2020.
54. Based on the Lancet article it can be estimated that in the present world, nuclear power saves 85.000 human lives every year assuming that it has replaced coal plants and 29.000 lives every year if it has replaced natural gas plants.
55. Fine-particle pollution caused by traffic will decrease if preference is given to cars with converters and natural gas buses. Electric cars do not produce fine particles. Electricity production can cause fine particles but the total amount is less, due to the greater efficiency of electric cars. In addition fine particles are emitted far away from the densly populated city centres. There are already electric vans used for distribution in cities. Electric cars are being commercialised.
b. Directives for fine-particle pollution
56. As has been stated above, the same principles that are used to limit radiation doses, should also be applied to reduce fine-particle pollution. The As-Low-As-Reasonably-Achievable or the ALARA-principle means that fine-particle pollution must be kept as low as is reasonably achievable.
57. The annual public radiation doses are tried to be kept considerably smaller than radiation doses caused by nature. With fine-particle pollution this is not possible, because already in the least polluted cities man-made fine particles predominate.
58. In Europe at present there are standards only for TSP (total suspended particles). The amount of TSP correlates very weakly with the concentration of fine particles. The vast majority of TSP are large soil-dust and other coarse particles.
59. Since 1987 there exists in the USA a standard for PM10 particles. The limit for the average daily concentration is 150 µg/m3and for the average annual concentration 50 µg/m3. EPA has recently proposed standards also for PM2.5 particles. The highest average daily PM2.5 concentration is 65 µg/m3 and the average annual concentration 15 µg/m3.
60. In October 1997 the Commission of the European Union presented a proposal for a Council Directive for PM10 pollution. The Commission is aware that PM2.5 is a more accurate surrogate for human exposure than PM10. However, most of the available studies of health effects and concentrations relate to PM10 pollution. The Commission has concluded that limit values should therefore be set for PM10. The proposed limits are shown in Table II.2.
Table II.2 Proposal for a Directive for PM10 pollution in the European Union
Averaging Limit value Date
Period
Stage 1 24 hours 50 µg/m3 PM10 not to 1 January 2005
be exceeded more than
25 times per year
calendar year 30 µg/m3 PM10 1 January 2005
Stage 2 24 hours 50 µg/m3 PM10 not to be 1 January 2010
exceeded more than seven
times per year
calendar year 20 µg/m3 PM10 1 January 2010
61. Limits for PM10 will be introduced in two stages. By 1 January 2005 the limit for 24-hour average PM10 concentration will be 50 µg/m3. The limit can be exceeded 25 times per year. After 1 January 2010 the limit can be exceeded only seven times per year. By 1 January 2005 the annual limit for PM10 will be 30 µg/m3 and by 1 January 2010 20 µg/m3.
62. The proposed annual concentration for PM10 in 2010 corresponds approximately to an annual average PM2.5 concentration of 12 µg/m3. Concentrations are presently below this limit only in the Nordic countries.
63. The Commission has estimated the costs and benefits for the realisation of the Directive in the European Union. The annual costs have been estimated to be ECU 250 to 1500 million. The benefits are estimated to between ECU 25,000 to 260,000 million annually. The large range is chiefly caused by uncertainty in the dose-effect for mortality due to long-term exposure.
64. According to research results (chapter II) the annual concentration of PM2.5 particles describes best the long-term health effects of air pollution. In PM10 particles are included coarse particles larger than 2.5 thousandths of a millimetre. These coarse particles come from the soil and road dust and their amount varies greatly. Their health effects are probably small. PM2.5 particles originate mainly from combustion processes and represent a serious health hazard. The drawing of a Directive especially for PM2.5 particles is justified.
65. If the ALARA-principle is applied, a target for the annual average PM2.5 concentration should be 10 µg/m3. To obtain information about the present situation of air pollution in Europe it is necessary to extend PM2.5 measurements and to study long-term health effects of fine particles.
References
1. Richard Wilson and John Spengler (Editors): Particles in our air; Harvard University Press, 1996.
2. Gerard Hoek et al: Wintertime PM10 and black smoke concentrations across Europe: Results from the PEACE study; Atmospheric Environment No 21 p 3609, 1997
3. Working Group on Public Health and Fossil-Fuel Combustion: Short-term improvements in public health from global-climate policies on fossil-fuel combustion: an interim report; The Lancet, 8 November 1997.
4. Proposal for a Council Directive relating to limit values for sulphur-dioxide, oxides of nitrogen, particulate matter and lead in ambient air; Commission of the European Union, COM(97) 500 final.
Reporting committee: Committee on Science and Technology.
Budgetary implications for the Assembly: None.
Reference to committee: Doc. 7820 and Reference No. 2187 of 28 May 1997.
Draft recommendation unanimously adopted by the committee on 25 June 1998.
Members of the committee: MM. Melnikov (Chairman), Birraux (Vice-Chairman), Mrs Terborg (Vice-Chairperson), Mr Tiuri (Vice-Chairman), MM. About, Ataç, Bauer, Beaufays, Brunhart, Cherep, Cherribi, Chornovil, Cioni (Alternate: Speroni), Cunliffe, Mrs Faldet, MM. Fernandez Aguilar, Frey, Ivanov, Janecek, Johansson (Alternate: Mrs Johansson), MM. Kitov, Kittis, Kurucsai, Lambergs, Langthaler, Leers (Alternate: Dees), Lekberg, Lengagne (Alternate: Mattei), Lenzer, Liiv, Lorenzi, Maass, Melcak, Molnar (Alternate: Hegyi), Mozgan, Naysmith (Alternate: Earl of Dundee), Lord Newall, MM. Niculescu (Alternate: Glavan), Niza, Olrich, Onaindia, Pawlak, Plattner, Prokes, Prusi, Raskinis, Rokos, Roseta, Ryabov, Skaarup, Steolea, Theis, Turini, Upton, Uroic, Vella, Weyts, Wittbrodt (Alternate: Luczak), Yürür, Zhebrovsky, Mrs Zissi.
N.B. The names of those members present at the meeting are printed in italics.
Secretaries of the committee: Mr Lervik, Mr Torcătoriu
Annex I
Annex II
Annex III