1. Introduction
1.1. My mandate and
the preparation of the report
1. On 30 April 2009, I tabled with colleagues a motion
for a recommendation on education against violence at school (
Doc. 11889), which
was referred to the Committee on Culture, Science and Education
for report. I was subsequently appointed rapporteur by the committee
on 25 June 2009.
2. On 14 October 2009, I contacted all the education ministers
in Europe asking them to provide me with relevant information about
the experience of their countries and with answers to four basic
questions:
- forms of violence
at school which had been identified as a problem;
- policies which had been developed for dealing with violence
at school;
- how the issue of human violence was approached in school
curricula and subjects taught at school;
- measures for dealing with violence at school that they
would recommend.
3. Twenty-eight countries
replied
to the questionnaire and I am thankful to them for their contributions. These
replies are available on the Council of Europe’s website.
Their
number and content confirm the importance of this subject as well
as the need for closer co-operation in Europe.
4. On 8 December 2009, in Paris, the committee held an exchange
of views on this subject with Mrs Linda King, representative from
UNESCO, and Mr Wijayananda Jayaweera, Director of the Communication Development
Division at UNESCO.
5. On 25 January 2010, the committee was informed by Mrs Maud
de Boer-Buquicchio, Deputy Secretary General of the Council of Europe,
about the Council of Europe’s “Building a Europe for and with children” programme
and the specific action it is taking to combat all forms of violence
against children, including violence in the educational setting.
6. The European Commission organised in Brussels on 25 February
2010 an expert consultation meeting on violence in schools, including
bullying and cyber-bullying, in the context of its work towards
an EU strategy on the Rights of the Child. I participated as a speaker
in this meeting.
7. Finally, the committee organised a hearing in Paris on 10
March 2010 with the participation of Dr Dan Olweus, Professor of
Psychology at the University of Bergen (Norway); Mr Hugues Feltesse,
Chief Executive at the Office of the French Ombudsperson for Children
in Paris, on behalf of the European Network of Ombudspersons for
Children (ENOC); and Mr George Fotinos, Member of the French Committee
for UNICEF in Paris.
8. I wish to express my gratitude to all those who have so actively
contributed to the preparation of this report.
1.2. Aim of the report
9. School violence has become, and must be regarded
as, one of the main issues concerning the protection of children’s
rights.
10. European media report occasionally on serious acts of violence
among pupils, acts of hostility and aggressions by pupils against
teachers as well as teachers’ violence against pupils. It is mainly
extreme cases of physical violence – such as assaults with weapons
or sexual abuses – that attract public attention on this issue.
However, such incidents are very rare and not representative of
the problem of school violence, which is much greater in extent
and mainly concerns “ordinary” situations. The phenomenon exists
in all European countries and affects the majority of children:
it is estimated that more than 60% of pupils are subjected to bullying
and violence at school.
11. Pupils’ problem behaviour is a cause for increasing concern
as it is becoming commonplace and more and more brutal and being
seen in ever younger children. Adults are often unaware of, or underestimate, intimidation
and bullying among schoolchildren. Furthermore, cases of “inappropriate
conduct” among teachers and even corporal punishment have been reported
in some European countries.
12. Violence, whatever its form, has a considerable effect on
the school environment. Children’s success and emotional health
are directly linked to the school climate and the quality of relations
with teachers and other pupils. In addition, acts of violence provoke
frustration, fear and generate a feeling of insecurity.
13. Longstanding efforts have, however, been made both at international
and European level to combat violence against children and young
people, including violence at school.
14. The 1989 United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child
guarantees the harmonious and safe development of each child and
its Article 19 explicitly relates to protecting children against
violence. It requires states parties to take “all appropriate legislative,
administrative, social and educational measures to protect the child
from all forms of physical or mental violence, injury or abuse,
neglect or negligent treatment, maltreatment or exploitation, including
sexual abuse, while in the care of parent(s), legal guardian(s)
or any other person who has the care of the child. Such protective
measures should, as appropriate, include effective procedures for
the establishment of social programmes to provide necessary support
for the child and for those who have the care of the child, as well
as for other forms of prevention and for identification, reporting,
referral, investigation, treatment and follow-up of instances of
child maltreatment described heretofore, and, as appropriate, for judicial
involvement”. A child’s right to education is also enshrined in
the UNESCO Convention against Discrimination in Education (1960),
which emphasises equal opportunities in access to and the quality
of education and stresses the importance of a non-violent learning
environment. More recently, the Dakar Framework for Action (2000)
linked the right to a quality education with the right to a healthy
and safe school environment.
15. The Council of Europe has always taken an interest in matters
associated with the protection of children’s rights. In its case
law, the European Court of Human Rights has demonstrated its commitment
to the effective protection of children’s rights, especially by
stating that corporal punishment – both at school and within the
family – violates the European Convention on Human Rights. The revised
European Social Charter (1996), in its Article 17, requires states
to protect children and young persons against violence in general.
The Council of Europe Committee of Ministers and the Parliamentary
Assembly have adopted a range of recommendations on recognising
and promoting children’s rights.
16. In 2006, the Council of Europe launched a transversal programme
entitled “Building a Europe for and with children” in order to ensure
a holistic approach to the protection of children’s rights in all
the Organisation’s policies. This programme is being carried out
by means of three-year plans (the most recent was adopted by the
Committee of Ministers in 2008) covering the areas of social, legal,
educational and health affairs and its aim is to help various players
to establish strategies for combating violence against children.
The project’s priorities include, amongst others, combating corporal
punishment and school and internet violence.
17. The European Network of Ombudspersons for Children (ENOC)
plays an important role in the protection of children’s rights.
Through its members, it has developed tools for combating violence
at school.
18. The European Commission against Racism and Intolerance (ECRI)
has developed policy guidelines through its General Policy Recommendation
No. 10 on combating racism and racial discrimination in and through
school education.
19. Notwithstanding the efforts made, the problem of violence
at school, and in society in general, still needs a solution. The
present report is therefore intended to provide a better understanding
of the extent and complexity of this problem and take stock of policies
and programmes developed at national level to address it, in order
to identify ways to deal with it effectively.
2. Violence
at school: the extent and complexity of the problem
2.1. Forms of violence
and bullying
20. Violence is part of human relations. It may be direct
and physical, but it may also take on various psychological forms.
Given the many different forms of school violence and the various
players involved, as well as the big differences between national
perceptions of the phenomenon, the term “violence” needs to be defined
as broadly as possible.
21. From the point of view of the seriousness of acts of violence,
the term “violent” could be considered to refer not only to aggressive
behaviour involving the use of force, but also to simple threats,
verbal attacks or indirect pressure on a person by means of rumours,
social exclusion, cyber mockery, etc. Some countries, such as France
and Belgium, include impolite or uncivil acts or remarks (
incivilités),
as well as situations involving abuses
of power or institutional violence. As far as its purpose is concerned,
violence may be self-destructive (consumption of alcohol and drugs)
or be directed at an individual (pupil or teacher), a group (racist,
sexist or gang violence) or at property or an institution (theft,
vandalism).
22. An analysis of the data provided by European countries shows
that verbal and psychological violence is more common than physical
assaults, while material damage is in third place. Verbal assaults
are particularly widespread (they dominate in France, Germany, Cyprus
and Estonia, for example) and target both children and adults. In
several countries, psychological violence is directly associated
with bullying.
23. Harassment, bullying and persecution among children is a phenomenon
specific to schools, and bullying is recognised as one of the major
factors that have an adverse effect on children’s mental health.
24. Bullying may be defined as a situation in which a child is
repeatedly exposed to aggressive behaviour by one or more pupils
over a long period of time. This behaviour is always characterised
by a power imbalance between the victim and the aggressor (dominant/dominated
relationship) and by the proactive nature of the aggression.
25. Bullying is a complex phenomenon that comprises all forms
of violent behaviour, but it is mainly its psychological aspects
and indirect aggression that set it apart and make it hard to detect:
indirect physical violence (grimaces, obscene gestures, damage to
personal property), direct verbal bullying (comments, mockery, teasing
and hurtful nicknames, malicious letters/e-mails) and indirect verbal
bullying (rumours, lies, posting photographs and comments on the
Internet), social exclusion, extortion of money, etc.
26. A large body of research shows the extent and impact of this
form of school violence. According to an international HBSC (Health
Behaviour in School-aged Children) study carried out in 2008 in
18 Council of Europe member states, one in five adolescent boys
between 11 and 15 years of age had been a victim of bullying, with
the rate exceeding 40% in four European states.
There are
considerable national differences (less than 10% in Sweden and over
40% in Lithuania) and even local differences; according to H. Feltesse,
this phenomenon affects 50% of pupils in some schools.
27. School bullying causes long-term psychological disorders,
both among the victims and the aggressors. The victims of bullying
have difficulty in adapting socially and emotionally and in making
friends. Children often refuse to go to school and become anxious,
depressive and incapable of learning. It has been shown that a considerable
proportion of victims of bullying suffer from depression, a lack
of self-confidence and suicidal urges.
The
perpetrators of bullying at primary schools may go on to practise
more significant forms of bullying at the end of their school life
and serious acts of violence in adulthood.
Finally, the economic and social costs of
bullying are not insignificant. According to a recent study, half
of 160 young adults (with an average age of 35) who had consulted
a psychiatrist for the first time had been victims of school bullying.
2.2. Factors that may
generate violent behaviour
2.2.1. Family
28. Despite the changes in the modern world, it is parents
who play the key role in a child’s education. The family environment
can foster personal development, but it can also lead to problematic
behaviour. If a child is exposed in its family to strong or even
authoritarian paternalism and interpersonal tensions or is even
subjected to corporal punishment, the chances are that he or she
will be intolerant and violent at school. Public condemnation of
domestic violence is a very slow process, even in Europe. To date,
22 Council of Europe member states have explicitly prohibited all
corporal punishment against children in all settings.
29. Rapid economic and social change, especially the deterioration
in poor families’ living conditions and the change in the traditional
family structure, have had adverse repercussions on the formative
role of parents. Violent families often belong to the economically
and socio-culturally most disadvantaged groups. Apart from poverty
and deprivation, experts include among the factors contributing
to school violence arguments between parents and parental separation,
a lack of supervision and the absence of one or both parents for
work-related reasons.
Parenting is perhaps the only
job not to be taught, so it is crucial to provide help for families
in difficulty or whose children exhibit violent behaviour. Generally,
intensifying the dialogue with parents and improving communication
between the school and the family would help to reduce school violence.
2.2.2. School
30. Education, another key aspect of the child’s development,
is both an objective and a means to achieve it. The school must
not only ensure knowledge transmission but it also has the task
of improving the pupils’ state of health and guaranteeing their
balanced development, especially by promoting such values as respect for
others and cultural diversity.
31. It is only possible to carry out these two functions in a
“positive atmosphere” that encourages non-violent attitudes among
pupils as well as between teachers and pupils. This climate depends
in particular on the school’s internal organisation, the children’s
involvement in school and extracurricular activities, mutual trust between
teachers and pupils and the example set by school staff. However,
the reality is often different.
32. First of all, corporal punishment is still prevalent and makes
it impossible to instil respect for human rights into children.
The “survival” of such practices can be put down to the inviolability
of the private sphere of the classroom and the fact that pupils
keep silent about what has happened.
On the other hand, as society
and education methods become more democratic, teachers have less
control over children, so that traditional disciplinary measures
prove ineffective in dealing with the violent behaviour of pupils,
who are more aggressive today both towards other pupils and adults.
Moreover, school staff seriously lack experience in conflict prevention
and management and are often at a loss when it comes to dealing
with aggressive behaviour.
33. The lack of resources in schools is one of the main problems.
This is first of all reflected in the reduction in the number of
teachers, which has resulted in large classes and therefore limits
the possibility of “human” contacts between pupils and teachers.
The lack of resources is also reflected in the quality of the training
of school staff and, consequently, the quality of the teaching.
Finally, insufficient funding is an obstacle to improving a school’s
facilities and educational environment, which would be more conducive
to study and play.
34. The poor organisation of the educational process is liable
to create considerable physical and emotional constraints, causing
stress and, ultimately, violent behaviour. The Assembly’s 2005 report
on balanced development in school includes among stress factors
the organisation of teaching incompatible with pupils’ biorhythms
and inadequate teaching methods that are out of phase with the children’s
age and stage of development.
35. In addition, schools based on an authoritarian and undemocratic
model aimed at controlling pupils rather than fostering their critical
awareness become a hostile environment that discourages pupil participation.
Among the other
aspects of school life that contribute to the development of violence
and bullying are a climate of competition and rivalry, a lack of
pupil mentoring and insufficient supervision.
2.2.3. Media
36. Information technologies present a new challenge
to combating school violence. Since their inception, the traditional
media have reflected violence in all its forms, and their influence
in this area is the subject of an ongoing debate. Today, this impact
has increased with the emergence of the electronic media. The internet has
permitted the unprecedented development of means of communication
and sharing information and its psychological influence is commensurate
with its extensive use by children. On the other hand, positive informal
education through non-violent media may also produce positive effects.
37. Video games often convey images of violence and, in particular,
bring about inordinate self-awareness and a misperception of others
and human physical abilities. Such cognitive and emotional changes
could result in it almost becoming standard behaviour to resort
to violence to solve a problem.
38. Finally, the new means of communication and socialisation
provided by the internet and mobile telephony have been employed
by young people as instruments of cyber-bullying.
39. It is therefore very important to pay special attention to
the influence of the media and to content potentially harmful to
children. On the other hand, the media, especially television, can
make a considerable contribution to the prevention of school violence
by raising public awareness of this issue.
3. Combating school
violence
3.1. National policies
and programmes
40. Countries’ replies to the questionnaire sent by the
Committee on Culture, Science and Education to the member states’
ministers of education include valuable information on forms of
violence identified in schools, on policies introduced to combat
violence, on ways of dealing with the problem of violence in school
curricula and, finally, on the measures to be considered.
41. As far as the definition of violence is concerned, the vast
majority of countries have identified its main forms (physical,
verbal, psychological). Some states, such as Cyprus, have presented
a fairly detailed analysis of the structure of violent behaviour.
In a number of countries, the phenomenon of bullying has not yet
been identified, while in others the emphasis is mainly placed on
harassment among pupils. A minority of states raised the question
of the role of the new technologies in violent behaviour, such as
the identification of cases of cyber-bullying (Austria, Estonia,
Germany, Luxembourg) or the management of internet content (for example,
checking the presence of internet filters in Latvian schools).
42. Most countries have introduced programmes specifically devoted
to the subject of school violence (“School Free of Violence” in
Bulgaria, 2009; “Safe school 2009-2011” in Estonia, etc.) or have
incorporated a programme within a broader framework, such as policies
for the long-term promotion of child health (Cyprus). The measures
favour a complex approach that musters the resources of several
ministries (education, justice, social affairs, health), combining
security and educational approaches and acting on different levels
(national and local).
43. Clearly there are still states where the problem of school
violence is managed solely from the security and deterrence point
of view. The ombudspersons of some European countries have reported
increasing recourse to judicial proceedings and, in general, an
increasingly criminal-law approach to the problem. In France, for
example, there is a tendency to describe acts of school violence
as lesser indictable offences. Child advocates in Greece report
that the school administration only reacts in cases of serious incidents
and that its intervention is limited to punishing the perpetrators.
44. As far as school curricula are concerned, apart from the civics
courses provided in several countries, the subject of violence is
dealt with by means of a multi-disciplinary approach: as part of
language, history, philosophy courses, etc. Some countries recognise
the inadequacy of the teaching of civic skills in the curriculum.
45. There is evidence that in the absence of an appropriate response,
bullying is likely to increase. According to the Bulgarian authorities,
for example, the number of victims of school bullying in the country
rose from 17% to 23% between 2002 and 2007. On the other hand, the
exceptionally low rate of bullying and victimisation in Scandinavian
schools is said to be due to the existence of national policies
on this subject.
46. In 2009, researchers in Cambridge analysed more than 500 reports
on various anti-bullying programmes. This meta-analysis revealed
the effectiveness of these programmes in reducing bullying and victimisation
(by 20-23%).
47. The research also concluded that programmes based on the Dan
Olweus method (Olweus Bullying Prevention Program, or OBPP) are
highly effective.
This
is confirmed by the Colorado Center for the Study and Prevention
of Violence, which has included the OBPP among the world’s most
effective programmes.
48. The OBPP was introduced by the Norwegian Government in the
country’s schools in the early 1980s. In addition to reducing the
latent and manifest problems of bullying, it aims to improve the
interpersonal relations between children in general. By restructuring
the pupils’ social environment, it eliminates the conditions that contribute
to bullying and cultivates a sense of community among everyone involved
in the life of the school. The programme is based on the central
role played by the teacher and tackles the problem of bullying on
three levels: the school, the classroom and the individual.
49. According to Olweus, the behaviour of the adults in schools
must be guided by four principles:
- adopting a warm and positive attitude and showing an interest
and becoming involved in the pupils’ lives;
- setting firm limits to intolerable behaviour;
- using non-violent and non-hostile disciplinary measures
when rules are breached;
- playing an authoritative and example-setting role.
50. Several assessments of the OBPP have shown its effectiveness
and the sustainability of the results. A study carried out in 1997-98
showed that in one year bullying went down by 23% and the number
of victims by 36%, whereas bullying in schools not involved in the
project increased by 4%. Over a period of two years (2001-2003),
the number of victims fell by approximately 33% and the number of
aggressors by 44%. Finally, according to a study carried out in
Oslo between 2001 and 2006, the implementation of the programme
over a five-year period brought the number of victims of bullying
down by 40% and the number of aggressors by 50%. These results show
that the OBPP has a lasting impact and helps change school “culture”
by strengthening schools’ ability to deal with bullying on a permanent
basis.
51. An approach diametrically opposed to the Olweus philosophy
and method is the one involving zero tolerance policies widely implemented
in the United States since the 1990s. It is based on deterrence
and consists in severe and punitive sanctions (the suspension or
even exclusion of pupils) for minor offences. However, doubt has
been cast on the effectiveness of these policies as far as reducing
school violence is concerned.
The
UNESCO experts include among counterproductive prevention programmes
those that are targeted at disciplinary problems and difficult pupils
and employ methods based on fear.
3.2. Good practices
and lessons learnt
52. The general recommendation would be to tackle the
problem of school violence using a holistic approach, that is to
say involving all players at all levels and employing all available
means. Experts stress the need to focus on long-term proactive measures.
53. According to the study by M. Ttofi and D. Farrington,
the key elements for reducing bullying
are:
- educating teachers and
parents;
- working with aggressors and their victims (case work usually
done by psychologists in co-operation with teachers);
- collaborative work between pupils (mediation, mentoring);
- better supervision of playgrounds (especially with the
identification of bullying “hotspots” and “peak times”);
- classroom management (techniques for detecting and combating
bullying);
- disciplinary methods;
- school conferences (raising pupils’ awareness of the phenomenon
and of the extent of bullying at their school);
- classroom codes of conduct (drawn up by the pupils together
with their teachers, often displayed for all to read);
- the official anti-bullying policy in each school;
- support materials (in the context of the basic curriculum
or new courses).
54. The exchange of views held by the Committee on Culture, Science
and Education with experts in school bullying pointed to a number
of specific elements that can help improve anti-bullying measures.
55. A clear definition of acts of violence is a necessary pre-condition,
especially in order to distinguish bullying from other forms of
violent behaviour and put it on the agenda in countries where school
bullying is not recognised as such. It is also crucial that the
harmful effects of bullying are recognised. School staff are reluctant
to admit the existence of bullying and to intervene, since – erroneously
– harassment and violence among pupils in general are considered
an integral part of children’s lives.
56. There needs to be better communication between pupils and
teachers on the problems associated with bullying. A study carried
out in Estonia in 2009 shows that children and adults have two different
ways of looking at violence: while pupils judge its psychological
dimension to be the most important, the teachers focus on physical
assaults.
57. A strong consensus has been reached on the idea that resolving
the issue of school violence requires the close co-operation of
everyone involved in a child’s education, including the school,
parents, local authorities, NGOs and the church.
58. The mechanisms for receiving complaints must be simplified
and strengthened. According to the French Ombudsperson, pupils do
not know whom to contact in order to talk about bullying. Denmark’s
National Children’s Council stresses that pupils do not even have
the right to complain about certain issues. It is therefore necessary
to create procedures that enable complaints to be recorded centrally
and formally communicated to the heads of the schools concerned.
59. Greater international co-operation on research on bullying
and a more systematic review of national initiatives for the prevention
of bullying are required in order to identify good practices. Moreover,
a cost-benefit analysis of the various programmes will help persuade
policymakers to approve their implementation.
4. Conclusions
and recommendations
60. The vitality and future of a society depend on its
young generation and, in particular, the conditions in which children
grow up. The school environment is one of the key aspects of children’s
lives, and the opportunity to study in a safe and healthy environment
is crucial for their balanced development, personal fulfilment and
future as citizens. The quality of adult life depends to a significant
extent on the quality of education. Bullying cannot be considered
a natural practice of children, so the development of anti-bullying programmes
is a necessary condition for a normal educational environment.
61. There are many different factors that influence school violence,
the main ones being the family and the socio-economic environment
in which the child grows up. The school environment itself may lead
to violence, not only because of the stress it creates and the inequalities
it reproduces, but because of the absence of dialogue between pupils
and parents. Furthermore, the social environment in the broader
sense (particularly the media and information technologies) exerts
an undeniable influence on children’s violent attitudes.
62. It is a difficult task to stamp out school violence, but measures
are available that enable violent conduct to be prevented or minimised.
However, schools would be unable to deal with this issue effectively
on their own. Close co-operation between the various actors is essential.
63. In this respect, several successful projects enrolling the
support of schools, parents and children in combating violence have
already been carried out, and these initiatives could serve as good
examples and be reproduced at the European level. In addition, the
need to give priority to preventive measures, especially improving
teachers’ social skills, must be stressed.
64. On this basis, and building on the experience of different
countries, a number of targeted actions could be envisaged to deal
with violence at school:
Setting up continuing training programmes for teachers and
school staff concerning the techniques for preventing and managing
violent behaviour, and the creation of specialised assistance bodies:
- incorporating this training
into teacher training programmes;
- creating programmes providing support for schools (such
as the two-day “Bullying” and “Emotional Health” workshops and the
five-day “Communication with adolescents” educational packages organised by
the Cyprus Ministry of Education);
- establishing partnerships with NGOs specialising in training
(such as the contract between the French Government and the association Génération Médiateurs);
- the introduction of “crisis intervention teams” to help
resolve urgent and particularly serious cases (like the Committee
of Direct Intervention in Cyprus).
Ensuring that a “peace education” component is part of the
curriculum, especially:
- introducing
interdisciplinary teaching not only of children’s rights but also
of their obligations;
- placing greater emphasis on the promotion of diversity
and on the enrichment it provides;
- using humanities and social science classes to combat
violence and its consequences.
Improving the school climate and pupils well-being:
- by introducing specialised programmes
(European Network of Health Promoting Schools, Priority Education
Zones);
- by funding projects for the refurbishment of school premises
(playground revitalisation, turning classrooms into leisure areas);
- by developing extracurricular activities.
Involving children as agents for the prevention and reporting
of violence:
- in the devising
of policies: holding regular consultations with children (such as
the Children’s and Young People’s Panel in Denmark and Parole aux Jeunes in France) and
encouraging their participation in forums on the problem of school
violence;
- in the operation of schools: school councils, mutual help
groups, drawing up codes of conduct;
- raising children’s awareness of the problems of abusive
or dangerous behaviour from a very early age (such as under the
Irish Stay Safe programme carried out in primary schools).
Improving the quantitative and qualitative monitoring of schools:
- remedying the lack of official
statistics or their omission by schools (Cypriot project for a school
violence monitoring centre);
- establishing criteria for assessing schools and teacher-training
programmes in terms of their effectiveness in the prevention of
violence;
- carrying out national surveys identifying good practices
and promoting their dissemination (such as the Hungarian manual A pocket book about violence in school);
- increasing the authority of or encouraging the setting
up of children’s ombudspersons, especially with regard to their
independence and monitoring powers.
Strengthening the links between the school, the family and
the community:
- by means of
parenthood support schemes (such as the French initiatives Ouvrir l’école aux parents pour faciliter l’intégration [Opening
up the school to parents to facilitate integration] and Réseaux d’écoute, d’aide et d’accompagnement
des parents [Networks for listening to, assisting and
mentoring parents]), and setting up parent-teacher advisory committees;
- by establishing partnerships between schools and companies
and setting up joint extracurricular and sports programmes.
Organising regular campaigns to raise awareness of the dangers
of school violence.