1. Introduction
1. The motion on the situation of the Turkish minority
in Rhodes (Rodos) and Kos (Istanköy)
and, consequently, the present report
fulfil a promise I made in recognition of the co-operation of the
Greek and Turkish delegations in assessing the situation on the
Turkish islands of Gökçeada (Imbros) and Bozcaada (Tenedos).
Having noted, with regret, how the
policies of earlier Turkish governments have over time destroyed
the Greek cultural character of the islands of Gökçeada (Imbros)
and Bozcaada (Tenedos), basically replacing the original ethnic
Greek population by new settlers from the Turkish mainland, I had
proposed measures to improve the situation of the remaining ethnic
Greeks and to create a harmonious, multicultural environment that
would ensure the prosperity of all the inhabitants of the two islands.
The Turkish delegation, which supported most of my proposals, urged
me at the time also to look into the situation of the inhabitants
of Turkish origin on the Greek islands of Rhodes and Kos. The present
report is the result of this inquiry.
2. I should like to stress from the outset that the situation
which I found on Rhodes and Kos is in no way comparable with that
on Gökçeada (Imbros) and Bozcaada (Tenedos). On the two Greek islands
which are the subject of the present report, multiculturalism thrives,
with the active support of the Greek authorities, and the inhabitants
with a Turkish cultural background are well integrated in the island
communities. Some problems have remained, however, and I will make
concrete proposals for their solution, as I did for the two Turkish islands.
I sincerely hope that the Greek authorities will be more responsive
to these proposals than their Turkish counterparts have been so
far as regards Gökçeada (Imbros) and Bozcaada (Tenedos).
2. Historical
background
3. The islands of Rhodes and Kos belong to the Dodecanese
group of islands in the south of the Aegean Sea, close to the Turkish
coast of Anatolia. Both islands have a glorious multicultural past,
which is still very much in evidence and constitutes the basis for
the prosperity of their inhabitants.
4. From the Stone Age, Rhodes and Kos have been invaded and influenced
by numerous Mediterranean civilisations, including the Minoans,
Phoenicians and Dorians, the Romans, Byzantines, Persians, Venetians, Genovese
and – from 1309 to 1522 – by the Knights Hospitallers. Between their
conquest by Suleiman the Magnificent in 1522, and 1912, when Rhodes
and Kos fell under Italian occupation during the Turkish-Italian war,
the islands were governed by the Ottoman Turks, mostly under a special
statute of autonomy allowing their mostly Greek inhabitants a high
degree of cultural and economic independence, against payment of
a special tax. The islanders, who enjoyed a period of relative prosperity
and de facto autonomy during
much of the 19th century, did not participate in the Greek war of
independence against Ottoman domination. Italian rule, which left
a number of somewhat disputable architectural traces, ended in 1943.
After a period of German military occupation ending in 1945 and
two years as a British Protectorate, the islands were transferred
to Greek sovereignty in 1947.
5. Given that the islands did not belong to Greece in 1923, their
ethnic Turkish inhabitants did not fall under the “exchange of population”
agreed between Greece and Turkey in the Treaty of Lausanne, during
which all Muslims from Greece (with the exception of those living
in Western Thrace) and all Greeks from Turkey (with the exception
of those living in Istanbul and on the islands of Imbros and Tenedos,
later to become Gökçeada and Bozcaada) were expelled to their “kin
states”. For the same reason, the Muslims on Rhodes and Kos do not
fall under the special regime of minority protection under the Lausanne
Treaty which was established in favour of those minority populations
which were exempted from the “population exchange”.
But the treaty with Italy under
which the islands were brought under Greek sovereignty specified
that all legal inhabitants were entitled to Greek citizenship and
that their religious and property rights would be respected.
6. During the various Greek-Turkish crises, in particular in
1955 (expulsion of most of the Greek community in Istanbul) and
in 1974 (Cyprus conflict), some measures were taken by the Greek
authorities which negatively affected the Turkish-origin inhabitants
of the two islands, but they stopped short of large-scale expulsion
and expropriation. Under a law of 1959,
“abandoned” plots owned by Muslims who left
Greece for more than five years were expropriated, and Turks who
fled the islands at the time of the Turkish invasion of Cyprus were forced
to sell their properties in a hurry, and many of them were deprived
of their citizenship.
7. But the size of the Muslim population (with a Turkish cultural
background), which currently stands at about 4-5 000
(about
2-3 000 on Rhodes and 2 000 on the smaller island of Kos), as a
proportion of the total population of the islands (117 000 on Rhodes
and 31 000 on Kos), has remained quite significant, despite the emigration
of numerous islanders of both communities to the Greek or Turkish
mainland, or to other countries in Europe. This is an important
difference with the Turkish islands of Gökçeada (Imbros) and Bozcaada (Tenedos),
whose originally mostly ethnic Greek population has been replaced
almost entirely by settlers from the Turkish mainland during the
same period.
8. Having spoken with numerous islanders with a Turkish cultural
background, I have the impression that they are generally well integrated
and proud to be Greek citizens. Many of them maintain strong cultural
and economic links with the Turkish mainland, including sending
their children to Turkey for part of their education, and investing
in the tourism industry on the Turkish coast. Their social situation
is not much different from that of the ethnic Greek majority, and
better than that of the “new minorities” who have immigrated from
Albania and from some African and Asian countries over the past
decades. Numerous mixed marriages have come to seal the multicultural
character of the island societies, which I sensed in a very positive
way throughout my visit.
3. Problems of the
inhabitants of Muslim/Turkish origin
9. The two main issues that were raised during my visit
concerned Turkish-language education and the lack of transparency
in the administration of the religious foundations (“vakoufs” or
“vakfs”) on the islands. Other issues include the upkeep of cultural
monuments and the organisation of Muslim worship.
3.1. Turkish-language
education
10. In view of the gradual decline of the Muslim population
on the islands and the increasing tendency of pupils with a Turkish
cultural background to attend the mainstream Greek schools, the
Greek military junta decided, in 1972, to close down the Muslim
Turkish-language primary schools – the last one in Rhodes being the
“Süleymeniye medresesi”. This was interpreted at the time as a reaction
to the closure of the Greek-language schools on Gökçeada (Imbros)
and Bozcaada (Tenedos) in 1964 and of the Halki Greek Orthodox seminary
in the same year. According to the State secretary in the ministry
of education, the last Turkish-language schools were closed in 1991,
due to the insufficient number of eligible children.
11. In Greek schools, classes on religion are in principle obligatory.
Non-Orthodox children are not obliged to attend, but courses on
Islam are presently not on offer. The Turkish cultural associations
(“brotherhoods”) offer classes on religion, and so does the Imam
of Kos, in the form of “Muslim Sunday school”.
12. According to information provided by the ministry of education,
there is presently a sizeable number of children with a Turkish
cultural background who could be interested in afternoon classes
for Turkish-language courses (according to the figures of the ministry
of education, 30 out of 270 children in Ixia have a Turkish cultural
background; in the old town of Rhodes seven out of 65; in Skouro
17 out of 135). According to the ministry, the possibility of organising
such classes exists, but there is “not much interest” on the side
of the parents. The State secretary, whom I met in Athens,
told me that she is ready
to come to the islands and explain the possibilities for organising
such Turkish-language classes in the afternoon, and encouraged me
to include this in my report. Such classes should be “serious”,
taught by teachers qualified in Greece, and open also to Greek children
wishing to learn their neighbours’ language.
13. During my subsequent visit to the islands, it became clear
that the parents with a Turkish cultural background were simply
not aware that such a possibility existed. Some of my interlocutors
on the islands belonging to this community would like to see the
former Turkish-language community schools reopened, at least at
primary school level, but that would seem unrealistic, given the
small number of children concerned and the reluctance of the Greek
authorities to extend Lausanne-style minority rights to the inhabitants
of Rhodes and Kos with a Turkish cultural background.
14. This said, I would consider it most appropriate to provide
the possibility of Turkish-language classes to all interested children
on the islands, not excluding those with cultural origins other
than Turkish. The knowledge of one’s neighbours’ language is an
important asset both for the preservation of the cosmopolitan character
of the islands and for their economic prosperity. Given the openness
of the Greek authorities to such an offer, its realisation seems
to be mostly a problem of information.
3.2. The lack of transparent
administration of Muslim religious foundations ("vakoufs"/"vakfs")
15. The legal regime of the properties belonging to religious
communities (“vakoufs” or “vakfs”) is a remnant of the Ottoman period.
The Italian administration recognised and formalised the Ottoman
structures in several decrees,
but in 1940 the control of Muslim
vakfs was handed over to the (majority) local administrations.
Under
British administration, the vakf properties were returned to the
Muslim communities. This legal status was accepted by the Greek
authorities under Declaration 19/1947 of the Greek military governor
of the islands and subsequent legislation. Under the Treaty of Paris
of 1947,
Greece undertook to respect
the status of all property of the inhabitants of the islands. Consequently,
Greece had to respect the existing vakfs in the Dodecanese islands,
but no new vakf could be created as the Greek Civil Code, extended
to the islands in 1947, does not recognise such a legal entity.
16. In practice, the Muslim religious foundations are administered
by two “organisations” (one for Rhodes, one for Kos) having five
members each, who are appointed by the Greek authorities (the secretary
general of the region). In theory (according to the Italian Decree
12/1929, which is still in force), they should be appointed every
two years. In practice, they stay in office as long as they enjoy
the government’s confidence. These “organisations”, in a similar
fashion to the committees for the management of the vakf in Thrace,
are considered as the legal representatives of the totality of the
vakf on each island. They are subject to annual financial controls
by the secretary general of the region, but the annual accounts
are not made public.
17. I have noted some discontent among my interlocutors with a
Turkish cultural background about the management of the Muslim religious
foundations. The tensions in this respect are particularly obvious
on Rhodes. There are allegations of maladministration, such as an
excessive sell-off of vakf property, failure to fulfil the vakf’s
duty to support poor members of the community, and lack of accountability
for the use of the income produced by the vakf properties.
18. The Muslim cultural association of Rhodes (“brotherhood”)
reportedly appealed recently to the attorney general of the island
in order to obtain the renewal of the vakf management committee
of Rhodes after twenty-five years, but to no avail. In Kos, the
minority of the municipal council publicly denounced the lack of accountability
of the island’s vakf organisation and asked specifically for information
on the way the organisation raised and spent €600 000 for the restoration
of two mosques (Lonca Gazi Hasan and Defterdar Ibrahim).
19. One vakf administrator told me that his organisation had sold
off 8% of its properties in recent years, while the Muslim cultural
association had to pay rent for its premises.
20. In my view, transparency of the vakf “organisations” should
be established as a matter of urgency. Even if in actual fact there
is no maladministration, providing transparency for the vakf accounts
would be a valuable confidence-building measure, in view of the
unease expressed by leading representatives of the Muslim communities
on both islands. The election by the local community itself, at
regular intervals, of the five members of each vakf “organisation”,
would further increase their accountability.
3.3. Upkeep of cultural
monuments
21. According to my interlocutors at the ministries of
culture and the interior, all historical monuments on the islands
are protected and maintained in the same manner, without discrimination.
But because of the precarious budgetary situation of Greece, not
all restoration projects can be carried out as soon as would be desirable.
22. By way of example, I was told that two mosques on Rhodes were
renovated with public funds in recent years, but two other mosque
renovation projects on Kos have been awaiting funding since 2008.
23. On Kos, I heard complaints that the project for the extension
of the harbour requires the destruction of three buildings belonging
to the Muslim vakf, including a former mosque. But the “mosque”
building in question looks like a simple shack, with a corrugated
iron roof, and has not been used for worship for some time. It was built
illegally, like the other two buildings concerned. The conflict,
in which the Turkish consulate got involved on the side of the Muslim
community, is not yet resolved. I also heard that a small number
of Muslim fundamentalists
are opposing any compromise
solution, such as the provision of an alternative prayer site offered
by the Greek authorities. A court case is now pending before the
Greek Supreme Court.
24. My impression is that the authorities’ professed attachment
to the cosmopolitan cultural heritage of the islands is genuine
– it coincides with the Greek state’s own interests, as the historical
monuments are important tourist attractions, the islands’ main source
of revenue. Given the foreseeable budgetary situation of Greece, one
avenue to mobilise additional funding for cultural heritage projects
on the islands could be a more efficient and transparent administration
of the Muslim vakfs (see section 3.2 above).
3.4. The organisation
of Muslim worship
25. About one third of the Muslim population of Rhodes
and Kos regularly attend mosque; they seem to belong mostly to the
older generation. Two mosques function on each island, the others
are closed, as I was told, for lack of followers and/or because
they are in need of renovation.
26. The organisation of Muslim worship is complicated by the fact
that it is unclear who is in charge. In 1947, when the Dodecanese
was attached to Greece, the Mufti of Rhodes remained in office as
religious leader. On Kos, another mufti remained in office unofficially
until his death in 1962. After 1947, a conflict developed between
the Mufti of Rhodes, who represented conservative, old-fashioned
Muslims, and the Turkish consulate, which favoured a modernist,
Kemalist and pro-Turkish ideology and campaigned for the appointment
of a new mufti. The Greek Government openly supported the existing
mufti and prevented the renewal of the mufti office of Kos, in order
to protect the authority of the Mufti of Rhodes. After the death
of the Mufti of Rhodes in 1961 and of his successor in 1974, the
latter’s deputy acted as mufti until 1992. But as of 1984, the official
status of the Mufti of Rhodes was in question. Whilst the Mufti
of Komotini sent Ismail Çakır Salimoğlu to Rhodes in 1990, as imam,
in order to maintain operational the mufti office of Rhodes, the
Greek state did not officially appoint any mufti, although the highest
representatives of the State treated Mr Salimoğlu as the highest
religious authority of the islands on various ceremonial occasions.
At the same time, the ministry of education and cults denied him
official recognition as a mufti, arguing that the number of mufti
offices in Greece is determined by a Law of 1928, which does not
mention such an office at Rhodes – which is not surprising, since
the islands were not part of Greece in 1928.
27. The resulting situation is somewhat unsatisfactory. The current
de facto office holder, 77 years
old and apparently not undisputed in his own community, does not
receive a proper salary or pension (as did his predecessors and
other muftis in Greece recognised by the state) and, according to
the administrative courts, is not even covered by the state social
insurance, which does in principle foresee coverage for religious ministers.
However, the administrative courts did not recognise Mr Salimoğlu’s
appointment as imam either. The disputed status of the Mufti (or
Imam) of Rhodes may also have contributed to the refusal of the
Rhodes vakf council to open up the second mosque, which is in principle
fully functional, for Friday prayers.
28. In my view, it is the responsibility of the Greek state to
solve this problem. The Law of 1928 should be updated to take into
account the inclusion of Rhodes and Kos in the Greek national territory.
Some interlocutors on the islands with a Turkish cultural background
told me that it may not really be necessary to have a mufti on Rhodes
or Kos at all; but the law should clarify who is the proper religious
authority for the Muslims living on these islands.
4. Conclusions
29. The situation of the inhabitants of Rhodes and Kos
with a Turkish cultural background is generally satisfactory, in
view of the tangible commitment of the Greek authorities to protect
and further develop the multicultural, cosmopolitan character of
the islands.
30. The problems that still exist – in particular as regards Turkish-language
classes, the administration of the Muslim religious foundations
(vakfs) and the unclear organisation of Muslim worship – could be
solved by the following three concrete measures:
- an information campaign among
parents of all schoolchildren on the islands, including those with
a Turkish cultural background, to inform them of the possibility
for afternoon Turkish language classes, to be organised by the educational
authorities upon parental request;
- ensure full accountability of the administrators of the
two public Vakfs before the members of the local Muslim communities
and the publication of their accounts, and also ensure that appointments
of administrators take place at regular intervals;
- ensure that the Muslim communities of Rhodes and Kos are
free to choose their religious preachers (imams), in the spirit
of Parliamentary Assembly Resolution
1704 (2010) on freedom of religion and other human rights for non-Muslim
minorities in Turkey and for the Muslim minority in Thrace (eastern Greece).