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For debate in the Standing Committee — see Rule 15 of the Rules of Procedure
Doc. 9981
16 October 2003
Erosion of the Mediterranean coastline: implications for tourism
Report
Committee on Economic Affairs and Development
Rapporteur: Mr Rigoni, Italy, Group of the European People’s Party (EPP/CD)
Summary
Coastal erosion is a growing problem in many Council of Europe member states, threatening natural and cultural heritage. In the Mediterranean region it is particularly acute due to mounting pressure arising from human activities, including poorly controlled mass tourism. Although erosion in the Mediterranean is in part a natural occurrence that can never be entirely controlled, it can be better managed in order to reconcile human needs with environmental protection.
The report, building on a seminar in Lido di Camaiore in Italy in May 2003, offers a broad overview of national and international efforts to ensure a balanced development of coastal regions. It outlines the current challenges to good management of coastal resources, puts forward numerous policy recommendations and stresses the Assembly’s commitment to promoting parliamentary involvement in favour of sustainable development.
The report also notes that the modern approach to the problem of coastal erosion recognises the dynamic nature of coastal areas by favouring “soft” or flexible strategies over the more traditional, “hard” engineering solutions tried in the past with mixed results, where the aim was to “force” nature to comply rather than to work with it in ways that will also promote economic development, including tourism.
I. Draft Recommendation
1. Among European coastlines and their hinterlands, those of the Mediterranean region are home to a unique natural and cultural heritage, apart from being highly coveted areas for human habitats and activities. Current demographic trends and development patterns in the Mediterranean region do, however, present a clear threat to the delicate and already disturbed balance between humans and their environment. The Mediterranean coastline needs to be better protected from multiple and mounting pressures that result from industrial, urban and other human-induced development of coastal areas in general and from poorly planned mass tourism development in particular.
2. Coastal erosion, which affects about half of the Mediterranean shoreline, is only part of this bigger challenge and is in part a natural occurrence that can never be completely controlled. It is also a problem affecting other coastal regions in Europe. Coastal erosion can and must be managed in a manner that better reconciles economic development and environmental protection. The Parliamentary Assembly in this context recalls its Recommendation 1594 (2003) on the “Follow-up to the World Summit on Sustainable Development: a common challenge” and reaffirms its commitment to promoting institutional reforms and parliamentary involvement in favour of sustainable development.
3. The Assembly - building on the conclusions of its Seminar “Erosion of the Mediterranean coastline: implications for Tourism”, held in Lido di Camaiore (Italy) in May 2003 - notes that the modern approach to the problem of coastal erosion recognises the dynamic nature of coastal regions by emphasising flexible or “soft” strategies for coastal protection over an exclusive reliance on “hard” engineering solutions trying to “force” nature to comply. Moreover, a comprehensive assessment of the expected impact, as well as the costs and benefits of coastal protection measures, may lead to the selective protection of only certain shorelines, or even no protection at all, in order to avoid a situation where new measures may lead to even worse complications.
4. The above should not, however, exempt policy-makers from the duty of challenging certain environmentally harmful land-use practices as they relate to human settlements, farming, shipping, industry and tourism along the coast, or from calling into question ill-considered regulation of river flows via dams or water reservoirs for electricity production, flooding protection or irrigation purposes. Good management of coastal resources and landscapes goes hand in hand with a systematic environmental quality assessment of projects, real-time monitoring of shorelines and coastal zones, concerted planning, follow-up to implementation measures and rehabilitation of sites where necessary.
5. The Assembly considers that political, cross-sector and scientific co-operation and action on a Mediterranean-wide scale – through the exchange of information, experiences and “best practices” – is essential to avoiding overlaps and repeating errors. To this end, the readily available know-how should be better exploited and any new initiative should be smoothly integrated into the existing framework via networking and partnerships.
6. Recalling its Resolution 1285 (2002) on “Tapping Europe’s tourism potential”, which pointed to the potential damage that mass tourism can cause to the natural and cultural environment, the Assembly renews its call for the development of balanced, quality-oriented tourism “emphasising preventive planning, the rehabilitation of sites and monuments, and the diversification of tourism offers”.
7. Tourism could be associated with specific development projects through national or regional schemes designed to pool financial resources in favour of coastline protection and restoration. Agreements could be put in place between local authorities and tourism service providers to transfer a symbolic sum to a “project fund” for every tourist stay in a given area. The Assembly believes that such solidarity schemes would be particularly suited for less wealthy regions in the southern Mediterranean which are hard-pressed to provide tourist facilities for better-off, out-of-region travellers and where population growth will lead to further urbanisation pressure on the coastal environment.
8. Considerable responsibility for the distribution of competences and tasks in adopting and implementing sustainable development policies lies at national level. It is the duty of national authorities to reinforce the legal basis for coastal protection on the basis of scientific evidence and duly to consult citizens and local authorities concerned. The Assembly therefore asks the Committee of Ministers to urge, in the first place, the competent authorities of the Council of Europe member states concerned - Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Cyprus, France, Greece, Italy, Malta, Serbia and Montenegro, Slovenia, Spain and Turkey – and, in the second place, all other Council of Europe member states with vulnerable coastlines to:
i. strengthen national legislation and administrative mechanisms for coastal protection, by implementing the concept of “integrated management” pursuant to the Committee of Ministers’ own “Guiding Principles for sustainable spatial development of the European Continent” (Rec(2002)1), the Model Law on Sustainable Management of Coastal Zones and the European code of Conduct for Coastal Zones;
ii. incorporate the “polluter pays” principle and the interaction between coastal erosion and tourism into local and national tourism development strategies, as well as long-term territorial planning;
iii. accelerate the procedure for signing or ratifying, as appropriate, the European Landscape Convention, in order to permit its entry into force;
iv. give more publicity in their countries to the initiatives of the World Tourism Organisation, such as the Global Code of Ethics for Tourism and the newly launched International Network on the Sustainable Development of Coastal Tourism Destinations;
v. pay special attention to the preservation of fragile coastal areas where no commercial activities should be allowed and - following the example of the French Coastal Conservatory (Conservatoire du littoral) - to consider the possibility of protecting the so-called “wild third” of shorelines through the gradual acquisition of outstanding sites and prohibiting construction on protected land while leaving it open to the public;
vi. pursue close intra-regional co-operation, including with the countries of the southern and south-eastern Mediterranean, through existing co-operation structures, networks and partnerships;
vii. encourage further research and the experimenting of innovative solutions for coastal erosion prevention, not least by promoting quality-oriented tourism and resource management.
II. Explanatory Memorandum by the Rapporteur
Table of contents
1. INTRODUCTION
2. OVERVIEW
3. PRESERVATION OF THE MEDITERRANEAN COASTLINE AND TOURISM: A DELICATE BALANCE
4. INTERNATIONAL LEGAL FRAMEWORKS AND COOPERATION NETWORKS
5. CONCLUDING REMARKS RECOMMENDATIONS
Appendix
*
* *
1. INTRODUCTION
1. On 7 May 2002, your Rapporteur and several other members of the Assembly presented a motion for a recommendation on the relationship between the expansion of tourism and the erosion of the Mediterranean coastline (Doc. 9432). The motion points to the importance of the tourism industry for the countries in the Mediterranean basin. At the same time, however, it recognises the need to address the problem of coastal erosion. The motion specifically calls for the Committee of Ministers to recommend member states “to adopt policies for the prevention of erosion and the environmental protection of the Mediterranean coastline” and “to identify mechanisms and policies to target and develop” the Mediterranean tourism industry.
2. This motion was subsequently referred to the Committee on Economic Affairs and Development for a report by the Bureau of the Council of Europe’s Parliamentary Assembly. The Committee, acting on the advice of its Sub-Committee on Tourism Development, organised a seminar on the subject between 8 and 10 May 2003 in Lido di Camaiore (Versilia) in Italy1, an area subject to coastal erosion. This event brought together experts and policy-makers for a brainstorming session and the Rapporteur wishes to thank all the participants for their valuable input to the discussions and also to this report.
3. Drawing on research and earlier reports on the subject - as well as on the panel contributions and discussions during the seminar and the conclusions of the Colloquy on Sustainable Development of the Euro-Mediterranean Region2 - the Rapporteur will examine the extent and causes of coastal erosion and their implications for tourism. He will also provide an overview of international initiatives towards sound management of coastal areas and tourism projects, and will conclude with a number of recommendations for meeting the challenges of the future.
2. OVERVIEW
4. The Mediterranean is a semi-enclosed sea covering an area of approximately 2.5 million km2, with a width of around 3 800 km from west to east and with a maximum north to south distance3 of about 900 km. The total coastline measures 45 000 km (or more than once around the earth), including 19 000 km of island coastline. The shores of the Mediterranean link 22 countries and territories4 across the three continents of Africa, Asia (the Middle East) and Europe5.
5. The Mediterranean basin is referred to as a cradle of civilisation, with a rich cultural and natural heritage6. It has remained an important region for human habitation and its coastal zones host intense and varied human activities. The Mediterranean is one of the most densely populated and highly urbanised coastal regions in the world. It is subject to intense agricultural, industrial and tourism development, as well as large-scale construction of housing and infrastructure build-up.
6. For these very reasons, the Mediterranean is also an environmentally strained area resulting from an intensive use, indeed overexploitation in many cases, of its resources. This threatens the very existence of the many unique assets it holds. Commonly observed problems include habitat degradation, deforestation, soil depletion, sedimentation, pollution, microclimate changes, fresh water shortages and coastal erosion.
7. In fact, coastal erosion7 is one of the most serious challenges for many Mediterranean countries today. The situation has of late become truly alarming for numerous stretches along the Mediterranean coastline that are now subject to unprecedented erosion and excessive tidal flooding. The problem of coastal erosion often extends hundreds of kilometres inland, for example in the case of large deltaic areas8, and sometimes across country borders. On the other hand, as in the case of pocket beaches, it may also be a very local phenomenon affecting only nearby neighbourhoods. In any case, coastal erosion, whether due to natural or anthropogenic reasons, causes significant ecological damages, economic losses and social problems.
8. Comprehensive and comparable information on the extent of coastal erosion and its causes is unfortunately scarce or unavailable for the Mediterranean basin as a whole. Nevertheless, the following specific or localised remarks can be made with regard to the extent of coastal erosion.
9. As illustrated in Table 1 below, many parts of the European Mediterranean shoreline suffer from coastal erosion. On average, 18% of this 18 000 km long coastline show signs of erosion, while only about half can be considered stable. Island coastlines are particularly vulnerable. It is estimated, for instance, that Greece loses one island per year due to the effects of erosion.
Table 1. Evolutionary Trends of European Mediterranean Coasts
Maritime Region |
Total coast-line (km) |
Stability |
Erosion |
Sedimen-tation |
No infor-mation |
Not applicable |
Balearic Islands |
2 861 |
68.8% |
19.6% |
2.4% |
0.5% |
8.7% |
Gulf of Lion |
1 366 |
46.0% |
14.4% |
7.8% |
4.1% |
27.8% |
Sardinia |
5 521 |
57.0% |
18.4% |
3.6% |
16.0% |
5.0% |
Adriatic Sea |
970 |
51.7% |
25.6% |
7.6% |
3.9% |
11.1% |
Ionian Sea |
3 890 |
52.3% |
22.5% |
1.2% |
19.7% |
4.3% |
Aegean Sea |
3 408 |
49.5% |
7.4% |
2.9% |
37.5% |
2.6% |
Source: CORINE Coastal Erosion, European Communities Publication, 1998.
10. In addition, more than 40% of the beaches along the Mediterranean coasts of Europe are affected by erosion9, while it is estimated that three-quarters of the sand dunes on the coastline between Spain and Sicily have disappeared since 196010. In Italy alone, about 27% of the beaches, which constitute 61% of the total Italian coastline, are receding11 and, in total, about 1 500 km of the shoreline are subject to erosion12.
11. The problem is even worse if one looks at coastal areas as opposed to just shorelines. For example, while ‘only’ 24% of the Tuscan beaches and other coastline (in km) are eroding, 57% of the Tuscan coastal areas (in km2) are affected by erosion13.
12. The loss of wetlands as a result of coastal erosion, flooding or human activities also constitutes a major problem. It is estimated that the Mediterranean has lost around one million hectares of wetlands in the last 50 years14.
13. Overall, the Italian authorities are particularly concerned about 33 sites covering a total of 4 500 km2 across the peninsula, including Venice and its lagoon, the Fondi plain between Rome and Naples, the Rimini beaches and the port of Trieste on the eastern coast15.
14. With regard to the causes of coastal erosion, there is, as with many environmental problems, no single, straightforward explanation. It is rather a combination of inter-linked natural and human-induced factors that lies behind the erosion of the Mediterranean coastline.
15. One natural explanation, although it is to some extent also human-induced, is climate change. Although estimates regarding the future vary, both global and regional temperatures are rising, partly – some experts maintain mostly – due to an increase in atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases. The warming over the last century has been more rapid than during any other period for which data exist. The 1990s was the warmest decade in a millennium, with 1998 the warmest year and August 1998 the warmest month16.
16. One direct effect of this trend in global warming is a rise in sea level. While there is still no scientific consensus on the likely rate of sea level rise in the future, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) concludes that the “average sea level is expected to rise as a result of thermal expansion of the oceans and melting of glaciers and ice sheets”. Hence, whatever the extent of the rise in sea level, many coastal areas will inexorably be more exposed to sea water intrusions.
17. Furthermore, the phenomenon of coastal subsidence (i.e., relative sea level rise or the natural lowering of land - this holds, for example, for the Italian peninsula) is expected to exacerbate the adverse coastal erosion effects of a sea level rise caused by climate change17.
18. The change in climate also causes extreme climate events, such as prolonged heat waves and hot periods18 (leading to droughts, fires, deforestation, soil erosion, and even desertification) and storm surges (leading to flooding, particularly when coinciding with spring tides).
19. Coastal erosion resulting from climate change particularly affects the deltas of Ebro (Spain), the Rhône (France), the Po (Italy) and the Nile (Egypt), as well as the island of Rhodes (Greece), the Syrian coast and Fuka-Matrouh area (Egypt). Similarly, the loss and flooding of wetlands and of coastal lowlands concern Ichkeul-Bizerte (Tunisia), the Thermaikos gulf (Greece), the Kaštela bay (Croatia), and the Sfax coastal area (Tunisia)19.
20. Nevertheless, it is primarily human-induced processes that lie behind the erosion of the Mediterranean coastline. In 2000, the Mediterranean population amounted to around 428 million20. It is estimated that between 40 and 50% of the Mediterranean population are concentrated along the coastal areas and that this coastal population in turn is expected to double by 202521.
21. The major issue along the densely populated Mediterranean coastal strips is the continued spread of urbanisation. Rapid urbanisation has occurred in most countries of the region over the past three decades. While urban population growth in the Northern Mediterranean is now stabilising, urbanisation and population growth rates in the Southern and Eastern Mediterranean show strong increases.
22. By 2025, more than 85% on average of the European Mediterranean population (and as many as 96% in Spain) is projected to live in coastal settlements22. The urban population of the coastal Mediterranean administrative regions could reach 176 million by 2025 (or 30 million more than the entire coastal population in 1990)23. Today, up to 65% of the coastline is already urbanised, often beyond its carrying capacity. In 1995, the Mediterranean shores hosted 3 962 agglomerations of more than 10 000 inhabitants, compared to only 1 923 such agglomerations in 195024. On the Eastern Mediterranean shores, more than 60% of the Lebanese population lived and worked along the narrow Mediterranean coastal strip already towards the end of the 1980s25.
23. Urbanisation is often associated with ‘coastal colonisation’, or the increasing concentration of development along the coast. For example, in 1996, over 43% of the Italian coastline was subject to intense human activity (i.e., complete urbanisation), while another 28% was partially affected and only 29% of the Italian coast was still free from construction. In addition, there were only 6 stretches of coast over 20 km and 33 stretches between 10 and 20 km without construction26.
24. ‘Coastal colonisation’ is in turn often associated with the ‘visual pollution’ of the coastline as a result of human construction, technical works and interventions to accommodate human needs and sometimes also coastal protection structures. In fact, 1 500 km of artificial coasts can be found in the European Mediterranean area27, with harbours and ports contributing the major part (82%)28. If in the past ‘hard’ solutions were favoured to protect vulnerable shores with seawalls, breakwaters and groins, increasingly ‘softer’ solutions, such as beach nourishment with sand or gravel and underwater structures, are becoming popular, especially in the northern Mediterranean.
25. The intense construction and development of agricultural, industrial, commercial, communication, transport, and tourism infrastructure along the Mediterranean coastline have led to overexploitation of, and competition for, its land space and resources. These physical modifications not only interfere with natural processes (such as beach formation), but also cause further coastal erosion. As more and more of the coastline is “developed” and artificially covered in concrete, natural coastal erosion and flooding worsen.
26. Coastal erosion might also be exacerbated by the upstream construction of dams and the development of other forms of river or coastal infrastructure as such constructions hinder the natural flow of sediments that rivers bring to the sea and the coasts. One conspicuous example is the coastal erosion in Egypt in the wake of the construction of the High Dam at Aswan.
27. Coastal protection barriers and defences that follow conventional hard engineering solutions in order to prevent coastal erosion and flooding in fact often aggravate the problem further (and farther geographically). In the case of the Venice lagoon for example, defence barriers, constructed to protect the city of Venice from high sea, have modified the tidal flows in the surrounding lagoon so as to cause a net loss of sedimentation with each tidal cycle. Over the past century, the lagoon has lost on average between 800 000 and one million m3 of sedimentation per year29. Hard protection barriers (such as breakwaters) are not only expensive to put in place and costly to maintain but also cause collateral damages provoking erosion in nearby areas and harming the aesthetical aspect of the beaches or coastlines they seek to protect, hence decreasing their economic value for tourism purposes30.
28. There is little doubt that human-induced causes, such as population pressures, urbanisation, over-construction, and ill-planned development (as well as protection) of the Mediterranean coasts have led to much of its deterioration or destruction. Many of these human-induced pressures stem from or are closely linked to tourism.
3. PRESERVATION OF THE MEDITERRANEAN COASTLINE AND TOURISM: A DELICATE BALANCE
29. Tourism to the Mediterranean area has flourished since the 1930s, and especially after World War II. With almost 220 million tourism arrivals per year, the Mediterranean is today the world’s leading tourism destination, accounting for almost one-third of total world tourism31. By 2020, the number of tourists might reach 350 million per year. As illustrated in Table 2 below, several Mediterranean countries receive a substantial number of tourists each year in proportion to their own population. In fact, on average, tourism arrivals account for 70% of the populations of the destination countries.
30. The tourism industry is clearly essential to most of the Mediterranean economies. In 200132, total tourism receipts33 amounted to USD 127 billion. Five Mediterranean countries - Spain, France, Italy, Greece, and Turkey - were among the world’s top 15 tourism earners in 200134. Tourism receipts average 5% of GDP for these countries. For some countries, such as Cyprus and Malta, tourism contributes as much as one-fifth of GDP.
Table 2. Tourism Arrivals and Tourism Receipts: 200135
Arrivals, million |
As % of population |
Receipts, USD billion |
As % of GDP | |
Albania* |
0.04 |
1% |
0.2 |
5.4% |
Algeria |
0.9 |
3% |
0.1** |
0.2%** |
Bosnia & Herzegovina** |
0.1 |
3% |
0.02 |
0.5% |
Croatia** |
5.8 |
132% |
2.8 |
14.7% |
Cyprus** |
2.7 |
355% |
1.9 |
21.8% |
Egypt |
4.4 |
7% |
3.8 |
3.9% |
France |
76.5 |
129% |
30.0 |
2.3% |
Greece** |
13.1 |
124% |
9.2 |
8.1% |
Israel** |
2.4 |
39% |
3.1 |
2.8% |
Italy |
39.1 |
68% |
25.8 |
2.4% |
Lebanon |
0.8 |
18% |
0.8 |
4.8% |
Libya* |
0.04 |
1% |
0.03 |
N/a |
Malta** |
1.2 |
308% |
0.7 |
19.7% |
Morocco |
4.2 |
14% |
2.5 |
7.4% |
Palestinian territories** |
0.3 |
10% |
0.2 |
5.0% |
Serbia & Montenegro* |
0.2 |
2% |
0.02 |
0.2% |
Slovenia** |
1.1 |
55% |
1.0 |
5.5% |
Spain |
49.5 |
125% |
32.9 |
5.7% |
Syria |
1.3 |
8% |
1.1** |
6.4%** |
Tunisia |
5.4 |
56% |
1.6 |
8.0% |
Turkey |
9.6** |
15%** |
8.9 |
6.0% |
* = 1999; ** = 2000.
Sources: World Tourism Organization and World Bank World Development Indicators
31. Mediterranean tourism is characterised by three basic features. First, much of Mediterranean tourism is concentrated on the coasts. The flow of tourists to the Mediterranean coastal regions is expected to grow from 135 million in 1990 to between 235 and 355 million in 2025. In some countries, coastal tourism represents up to 90% of all tourism36. Second, it is heavily seasonal, with tourism arrivals culminating during a few summer months. In some places the coastal population more than doubles during the summer tourist season. Such seasonal fluctuations, however, leave most of tourist lodgings vacant during the low season during the remainder of the year. Third, the European Mediterranean currently dominates the tourism market, although other regions will grow comparatively faster in the near future.
32. In an effort to attract and sustain ever increasing numbers of tourists, the Mediterranean countries have in many instances over-exploited their coastal areas to provide necessary facilities. Tourism development is intensive on coastal fringes and many local authorities are hard pressed to supply backup. More and more of the basin’s natural coastline vanishes to make way for hotels, resorts, campsites, cafés, restaurants, bars, marinas, cruise ship ports, airports, roads, leisure parks, golf courses, and other recreation areas.
33. While there is a complex relationship in general between tourism and the environment and while coastal erosion clearly results from more factors than just mass tourism, the latter remains an important cause37, as tourism-related construction and development add enormous pressure on the fragile Mediterranean coastal areas.
34. It is clear that, due to tourism’s economic importance, the Mediterranean region cannot do without a degree of mass tourism. However, it is also evident that it needs to safeguard its coastline, the very resource upon which the tourism industry depends. A balance between the preservation of the Mediterranean coastline and mass tourism development therefore has to be found.
35. The protection of the Mediterranean coastline requires a proactive and interdisciplinary framework for the management of coastal areas. Integrated coastal zone management (ICZM)38, is a multidisciplinary approach towards promoting sustainable management of coastal zones. It covers the full cycle of information collection, planning, decision-making, management and monitoring of implementation measures. ICZM includes all stakeholders to assess the community goals in a given coastal area and to take actions towards meeting these objectives. It seeks, over the long-term, to balance environmental, economic, social, cultural and recreational objectives. The term ‘integrated’ refers to the harmonisation of objectives and of the instruments required to meet these objectives. It entails close co-ordination of all relevant policy areas, sectors and administrative levels as well as integration of the land and marine components of the target territory39.
36. The World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) promotes “sustainable development” that “meets current needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”. Starting from the assumption that tourism activities should form part of a broader framework of sustainable development in the Mediterranean, tourism cannot be seen as an end in itself, but rather as a means to ensure a more harmonious and environment-friendly socio-economic development. The challenge lies in developing a model or framework for sustainable tourism – one which combines tourism development with respect for and preservation of natural, cultural and social resources. It should favour the reduction of tensions between the tourism industry, the host communities and the environment. Sustainable tourism is hence lasting (economically viable in the long-term, as well as planned and well managed), environment-friendly (adapted to the carrying capacity of the natural and cultural environment and seeking to minimise seasonal effects), diversified (in relation to the surroundings, adapted to the site’s characteristics, based on local enterprises, and avoiding total dependence on tourism) and participatory (involving all relevant stakeholders).
37. It is increasingly recognised that tourism could and should make a much greater contribution to the protection, management and best possible use of the areas it uses. A greater effort is, for example, needed to rehabilitate older tourist destinations as well as to protect the natural and cultural heritage (both old and new) used by tourism. Apart from contributing to the environmental protection, conservation, and the sustainable use of natural resources, tourism can also provide much needed resources and raise awareness of the value of environmental and cultural assets of coastal regions.
4. INTERNATIONAL LEGAL FRAMEWORKS AND COOPERATION NETWORKS
38. The need for a comprehensive and integrated management of coastal areas and resources in the Mediterranean at local, national and international level has long been recognised. Both local and national authorities recognise the importance of the coastal erosion problem and its implications for tourism, as well as the necessity for a systematic and comprehensive approach to the management of littoral areas40. On
the international level, although few of the actions undertaken have specifically targeted the problem of coastline erosion and tourism, they address the problem indirectly by focusing on issues related to integrated coastal zone management and sustainable tourism.
39. In 1976, twenty-one Mediterranean countries adopted the Barcelona Convention for the Protection of the Mediterranean Sea against Pollution41 and set up the Mediterranean Action Plan (MAP) forming part of the Regional Seas Programme of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). The main objectives of the MAP were to assist Mediterranean governments in assessing and controlling marine pollution, formulating national environment policies and improving their ability to identify alternative patterns of development and to shape improved policies for resource allocation.
40. In 1985, the countries participating in the MAP, except Albania, signed the Genoa Declaration, which provided for a more proactive framework focusing on integrated coastal planning and management rather than just pollution prevention. As part of this reorientation, the Mediterranean Blue Plan was proposed in 1988. It can be regarded as the socio-economic component of the MAP as it seeks to link the protection of the Mediterranean environment with various levels of development42. It is considered one of the most thorough steps towards stopping the degradation of the Mediterranean.
41. In 1995, the Barcelona Convention was updated and revised (the amended Convention, recorded as Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment and the Coastal Region of the Mediterrranean, has not yet entered into force) and a new phase of the MAP was adopted. This new phase placed greater emphasis on sustainable development and biodiversity conservation43.
42. In 1997, the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe adopted a Recommendation on a Policy for the Development of Sustainable Environment-Friendly Tourism in Coastal Areas (No. R (97) 9) exhorting member states to base their tourism development policy and their financial incentives on the guiding principles for sound management of coastal areas. This is in addition to other landmark legal instruments – such as the Bern, Granada, Valleta, Lugano, Strasbourg and Florence conventions and the Guiding Principles for sustainable spatial development of the European continent – that seek to strike or redress a balance between man and the environment. A Pan-European Code of Conduct for Coastal Zones and a Model Law on Sustainable Management of Coastal Zones were subsequently endorsed by the Ministers.
43. In 1999, the MAP Priority Actions Programme (PAP)/Regional Activity Centre (RAC) gave rise to a “Conceptual Framework and Planning Guidelines for Integrated Coastal Area and River Basin Management (ICARM)” and recommendations for action on “Tourism and sustainable development”. These documents outline the key steps, implementation strategies and policy instruments towards a multi-sectoral and integrated management as well as sustainable development of coastal zones, river basin areas and tourist flows in the Mediterranean44. Strategy formulation within the context of ICARM is adapted to the particularities of a given site and the broader regional and national conditions. It hence requires a high level of co-operation within and between different institutional structures, policy making entities, and sectors45.
44. Although a specific protocol on integrated coastal area management (ICAM) has been discussed several times within the MAP framework, it has not yet been adopted. However, a feasibility study towards the adoption of such a protocol was commissioned in 2001. Furthermore, within the framework of the MAP, the Coastal Area Management Programme (CAMP) seeks to promote sustainable development through the implementation of practical and non-commercial ICAM projects. Following the first four PAP pilot projects carried out between 1987 and 1989, a total of ten CAMPs have been implemented to date46. Another five CAMPs are currently underway or under preparation47.
45. Furthermore, the second phase of the MAP has given rise to a number of specific proposals with regard to tourism development, including: 1) to evaluate, supervise and assess tourism activities and their environmental impacts; 2) to promote regional and international co-operation in order to encourage environmentally friendly tourism compatible with sustainable development; 3) to monitor and protect natural, cultural and human resources and to undertake regular assessments of the environmental impact and carrying capacity; and 4) to carry out information and awareness campaigns.
46. The Mediterranean Commission on Sustainable Development (MCSD), established in 1996 by the contracting parties to the Barcelona Convention, is a think-tank seeking to formulate a regional strategy for sustainable development in the Mediterranean. One of MCSD’s top priorities is to reconcile tourism with sustainable development in the Mediterranean. For this purpose, it has set up a specific working group (composed of representatives from several Mediterranean countries, the EU and a number of NGOs) for the formulation of proposals and recommendations for concrete actions48.
47. MEDCOAST is an international initiative that aims to contribute to the conservation and proper management of the coastal and marine areas of the Mediterranean and the Black Sea through collaboration and improved coastal management practices. Its members include several international organisations49, while yet other entities50 sponsor its activities on a project basis. Since 1993, MEDCOAST has organised five international conferences51, two international workshops, five training programmes and other training courses on topics related to the conservation and sustainable use of the Mediterranean coastal and sea environment. Based in Turkey, MEDCOAST has set up an International MEDCOAST Centre for Coastal Management in the Mediterranean and the Black Sea (affiliated to the Middle East Technical University) and a MEDCOAST Foundation (a non-profit scientific and environmental organisation).
48. The International Network on the Sustainable Development of Coastal Tourism Destinations is a newly launched initiative of the World Tourism Organization, with the technical and scientific collaboration of the National Distance Education University (UNED) of Spain. This network aims: to compile quality information on sustainable development and management of coastal tourism destinations; to facilitate information sharing (via the Internet); to provide guidelines on policies and operations towards the development of sustainable coastal tourism; and to foster co-operation and partnership among network members. The World Tourism Organization (WTO) has also focussed on effective planning at the local, national, and international levels as well as on developing indicators for sustainable tourism52.
49. Another initiative, the Mediterranean Technical Assistance Programme (METAP), is a multi-donor programme of early 1990s, bringing together the European Commission, the European Investment Bank (EIB), the UNDP and the World Bank, as well as some individual countries (Finland and Switzerland). In close co-ordination with the MAP, it aims to help the non-EU Mediterranean countries53 to address the environmental policy, institutional, and investment-related needs towards curbing and reversing the environmental degradation of the region, including integrated water and coastal resources management, which is a top priority for action of this Programme for the 2001-2005 period. The Rapporteur, however, is not fully familiar with METAP’s achievements to date.
50. The Foundation for Mediterranean Laboratory, a non-profit organisation seeking to develop dialogue within the Mediterranean area and to promote common management of its territory, is involved in a region-wide co-operation initiative for monitoring the Mediterranean coastal erosion by satellite (to be in place shortly) and for exchanging best practices.
51. Last, but not least, the EUROSION project, launched in 2001 and funded by the European Commission54, is specifically targeted at sustainable coastal erosion management and communication structures. It seeks to provide the European Commission with recommendations for information management and policy-making based upon a thorough assessment of the current situation and past experiences. It will prepare an information database, a review of lessons learned from around sixty case studies, as well as a Shoreline Management Guide with practical examples of coastal erosion management.
5. CONCLUDING REMARKS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
52. It is evident from the background research and the seminar proceedings that the unique Mediterranean expanse needs to be protected from multiple pressures, including human-induced development of coastal areas in general and unrestrained mass tourism development in particular. Although coastal erosion is only a part of this bigger challenge and a problem that can never be completely controlled, it can be managed in an economically and ecologically sustainable way. This obvious need for more coherent efforts to reconcile tourism development (economic needs) with coastal protection (environmental needs) finds an adequate response in the concept of sustainable development.
53. The very understanding of coastal erosion has changed considerably over the last decades. A modern approach tends to recognise the dynamic nature of coastal areas that are being constantly shaped and reshaped by both nature and human beings. This means that, learning from past experiences, the so-called ‘soft’ strategies (beach nourishment, sub-merged structures and integrated coastal management) are being favoured over hard engineering solutions (seawalls, detached breakwaters or groins) which have proved to be of limited effectiveness, if not counterproductive, over time and costly to maintain.
54. All aspects of coastal protection measures have to be carefully considered, and costs and benefits of different options have to be assessed in order to avoid causing one problem by solving another. Indeed, selective protection of shorelines or no artificial protection in some coastal areas may be part of a protection strategy, marking a departure from earlier defence philosophies which imposed a systematic intervention on any stretch of coast threatened by erosion, thereby obstructing natural regulation through the redistribution of sandy sediment along the coast.
55. This is not to say that we should refrain from challenging certain land-use techniques as they relate to human settlements, farming, shipping, industry and tourism along the coast, as well as the regulation of river flows inland through dams or water reservoirs55. A wise management of natural resources goes beyond pure and simple exploitation and presupposes environmental quality assessment of projects, real time monitoring of shorelines and coastal zones, concerted planning, follow-up to implementation measures, and rehabilitation of sites, when deemed necessary.
56. Fragile coastal areas deserve special attention: no commercial activities should be tolerated there. On the example of the French Coastal Conservatory (Conservatoire du littoral), other countries could consider setting the aim to protect the “wild third” of the shoreline by controlling the land ownership (through the gradual acquisition of outstanding sites) and prohibiting construction on the protected land while at the same time leaving these areas open to the public.
57. The ultimate responsibility for the distribution of competences and tasks in adopting and implementing sustainable development policies lies with national politicians. It is their duty to strengthen the legal basis for coastal protection, to study expert proposals and to consult citizens who live in the areas concerned. It is also their duty to ensure that the interlink between coastal erosion and tourism be integrated into local and national tourism development strategies, as well as long-term territorial plans. Sectoral (or “enclave”) and reactive approaches can no longer be considered adequate solutions to the problems of coastal erosion and improper tourism development.
58. The Rapporteur, along with many seminar participants, also wishes to stress the need for political, cross-sector and scientific co-operation and action on a Mediterranean-wide scale. Exchange of information, experiences and best practices is crucial to avoiding overlaps and repeating errors. As Chapter 4 of this report argues, there is no lack of initiatives for region-wide co-operation on integrated coastal management and sustainable tourism development. Rather than creating a new structure, the readily available know-how should be better exploited and any new initiative should be integrated into the already existing framework. Now that electronic means of communication are widely used, networking should become a rule and partnerships between various actors developed.
59. Whereas the mechanisms and causes of coastal erosion are now fairly well understood and technical, economic, social and political options for tackling coastal development problems are generally known and affordable, a genuine will and co-ordination between sectors and parties concerned is often lacking for effective solutions to become real. Overcoming this confusion and sometimes sluggishness to act is a key to achieving tangible progress, and the impetus for more vigorous action of administrations should come from public pressure.
60. Assembly Resolution 1285 (2002) on ‘Tapping Europe’s tourism potential’ rightly maintained that “mass tourism may irreversibly damage the natural and cultural environment”. It therefore called for “policies for balanced, quality-oriented tourism … emphasising preventive planning, the rehabilitation of sites and monuments, and the diversification of tourism offers”56. Greater involvement of the tourism sector in promoting sustainable forms of tourism is therefore essential to the preservation of the Mediterranean coastline. The work of the WTO and other international tourism bodies, such as the World Travel and Tourism Council, is particularly important in this regard. Wider adoption and application, in the Mediterranean countries, of the ‘polluter pays’ principle and the WTO’s Global Code of Ethics for Tourism would be an important step forward.
61. Moreover, tourists could be associated with specific development projects through national or regional schemes designed to pool financial resources in favour of coastline protection or rehabilitation. For instance, local authorities and tourism services providers could agree to transfer a symbolic euro to a ‘project fund’ for every tourist stay in a given area. Such solidarity schemes could be particularly useful in the poorer Southern Mediterranean states that are hard-pressed to provide tourist facilities for better-off ‘northern’ travellers, and where demographic growth will accentuate pressure on coastal areas. As the saying goes, ‘think globally, act locally’.
62. Finally, the Rapporteur strongly supports further research and experimenting of innovative solutions for erosion prevention and coastal protection57. In this regard, the competent authorities should consider not only the strict engineering aspects but also the interaction between local coastal areas seeking to minimise any collateral damage. It may thus make sense to consider a simple inland transfer of activities not directly related to the coast rather than engaging major engineering efforts to protect the coast in question.
63. The Rapporteur, himself from a Mediterranean coastal region – indeed the Tuscan Versilia where the Economic Committee’s seminar was held with his active support and cooperation – is convinced, that it is only by learning from each other at European level that we can learn to master the major problem of coastal erosion affecting many countries on our continent, and thereby not only preserve that unique natural heritage for future generations, but also assist these regions in their economic and social development in which tourism forms an ever larger component.
Appendix
“Erosion of the Mediterranean Coastline: Implications for Tourism”
SEMINAR PROGRAMME
Hotel Le Dune (Lido di Camaiore (Italy))
Friday, 9 May 2003
3 pm Opening Statement by Chairpersons:
Mrs Rosmarie ZAPFL-HELBLING, Chairperson of the Committee on Economic Affairs and Development of the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe, and
Mr Claudio AZZOLINI, Chairman of Italian Delegation to the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe
Mr Giampaolo BERTOLA, Mayor of Lido di Camaiore
“Sustainable management of tourism projects in coastal areas”Mr
Mr Roberto TORTOLI, Under-Secretary of State for the Environment, Ministry of the Environment of Italy
Mr Andrea RIGONI, Member of the Committee on Economic Affairs and Development of the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe and its Rapporteur on the development on tourism industry and the erosion of the Mediterranean coastline
Dr Lucia FRANCHINI, President of the Regional Committee No. 5 for Cultural Activities and Tourism, Regional Council of Tuscany
Mr Tommaso FRANCI, Member of the Regional Government of Tuscany in charge of Environment
Prof. Pier Luigi AMINTI, Professor of Coastal Structures, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Florence
Debate
4.30 pm “Mitigating the effects of erosion in the Mediterranean region”Mr
Mr Michele CAPASSO, President of the Foundation for Mediterranean Laboratory (Fondazione Laboratorio Mediterraneo)
Prof. Aldo CINQUE, Professor in the Department of Earth Sciences of the University of Naples, Federico II.
Prof. Enzo PRANZINI, Professor of Physical Geography, Department of Earth Sciences of Florence University
Prof. Giovanni RANDAZZO, Professor of Environmental Geology, University of Messina
Debate
8.30 pm Official Dinner hosted by Mr Claudio AZZOLINI, Chairman of the Italian Delegation to the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe (“Lorenzo” Restaurant)
Saturday, 10 May 2003
9.30 am “Reconciling economic and environmental protection needs in the Mediterranean”Mr
Mr Marcello PERA, President of the Italian Senate
Mr Altiero MATTEOLI, Minister for the Environment of Italy
Prof. Emilio BECHERI, Co-ordinator of the report on Tourism in Italy, Department of Economy and Commerce of the University of Florence
Prof. Luigi D’ALPAOS, Professor of Hydrodynamics, University of Padua
Prof. Paolo BOCCOTTI, Professor of Ocean Engineering, Department of Mechanics and Materials, Mediterranean University of Reggio Calabria
Debate
12 noon Concluding remarks by
Mr Evgueni KIRILOV, Vice-Chairman of the Committee on Economic Affairs and Development of the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe
12.30 pm Lunch hosted by the municipality of Lido di Camaiore
2.30 – 7.45 pm Technical visits to the Carrara quarries and Colonnata village
8.15 pm Dinner hosted by the Italian Delegation to the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe (“Venanzio” Restaurant in Colonnata village)
Reporting committee: Committee on Economic Affairs and Development
Reference to committee: Doc. 9432 and Ref. No. 2722 of 29 May 2002.
Draft recommendation adopted by the Committee on 2 October 2003.
Members of the committee: Mrs Zapfl-Helbling (Chairperson), Mr Kirilov, Mrs Burbiene, Mrs Pericleous-Papadopoulos (Vice-chairpersons), Mr Açikgöz, Mr Adam, Mr Agramunt, Mr I. Aliyev, Mr Anacoreta Correia, Mr Andov, Mr Arnau, Mr Assis Miranda, Mr Ates, Mr Berceanu, Mr Braun, Mr Brunhart, Mr Budin, Mr Çavusoglu, Mr Cosarciuc, Mr Crema (Alternate: Mr Rigoni), Mr Dimic, Mr Djupedal, Mr Duivesteijn, Mr Eyskens, Mr Figel, Mr Floros (Alternate: Mr Sfyriou), Mr Galchenko, Ms Griffiths, Mr Grignon, Mr Gusenbauer, Ms Hakl, Mr Haupert, Mr Högmark, Mr Jonas, Mr Kacin, Mr Karapetyan, Mrs Kestelijn-Sierens, Mr Klympush, Mr Korobeynikov, Mr Kraus, Mr Krivokapic, Mr Lachnit, Mr Le Guen, Mr Leibrecht, Mr Liapis, Mr Makhachev, Mr Masseret, Mr Melcak, Mr Mikkelsen, Ms Milicevic, Mrs Muizniece, Mr Naumov, Mr Öhman, Mr O’Keeffe, Mr Opmann, Mrs Patarkalishvili, Mrs Petursdottir, Mrs Pintat Rossell, Mr Podgorski, Mr Popa, Mr Puche, Mr Pullicino Orlando, Mr Ramponi, Mr Reimann (Alternate: Mr Frey), Mr Riccardi, Mr Rivolta, Lord Russell-Johnston, Mr Rybak, Mr Sasi, Mr Schreiner, Mr Severin, Mr Seyidov, Ms Smith, Mr Stefanov, Mr Tepshi, Mr Torbar, Mrs Vadai (Alternate: Mr Szalay), Mr Walter, Mr Wielowieyski, Mr Wikinski, Mr Zhevago.
N.B. The names of those members present at the meeting are printed in italics
Head of Secretariat: Mr Torbiörn
Co-Secretaries to the committee: M. Bertozzi, Ms Ramanauskaite; Ms Kopaçi-Di Michele, Ms Stewart
1 See appendix for seminar programme
2 Organised by the Assembly’s Committee on the Environment, Agriculture and Local and Regional Affairs in Valencia (Spain), 13-14 March 2003.
3 Between Algeria and France.
4 Albania, Algeria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Cyprus, Egypt, France, Greece, Israel, Italy, Lebanon, Libya, Malta, Monaco, Morocco, the Palestinian territories (namely the Gaza strip), Serbia and Montenegro, Slovenia, Spain, Syria, Tunisia, and Turkey.
5 The coastlines, including the perimeter of islands, of the individual countries range from below 100 km for places such as Monaco (4 km), Bosnia and Herzegovina (20 km), and Slovenia (47 km) to several thousand km for countries such as Greece (13 676 km), Italy (7 600 km), Turkey (7 200 km), and Croatia (5 835 km). From the CIA World Factbook 2002.
6 It hosts over 400 UNESCO protected sites and has been identified by the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) as one of the most important regions in the world for its outstanding biodiversity features.
7 Defined as the long-term loss of shore material (in terms of volume) in relation to a fixed reference line (or baseline) and an initial reference volume seaward of this line. Coastal erosion hence involves the shoreward recession of the shoreline and the subsequent loss of land area (for example, the reduction of the width of beaches or the retreat of sand dunes).
8 Such as the Nile and Po river deltas.
9 CORINE Coastal Erosion, European Communities Publication, 1998.
10 “Tourism and Sustainable Development”, Report of the Secretary-General, Commission on Sustainable Development, 7th session, UN Economic and Social Council, April 1999.
11 The Atlas of the Italian Beaches: A Review of Coastal Processes, G. Fierro and R. Ivaldi, 2001.
12 Prof. P.L. Aminti.
13 Mr T. Franci.
14 “Tourism and Sustainable Development”, Report of the Secretary-General, Commission on Sustainable Development, 7th session, UN Economic and Social Council, April 1999.
15 “Faiblesses du Littoral Italien”, Dernières Nouvelles d’Alsace, 4 February 2003.
16 Climate Change and Its Impacts on Tourism, WWF-UK, David Viner and Maureen Agnew, July 1999.
17 Some experts argue that the causes of coastal erosion are not so much global climatic change and an absolute elevation of the sea, but rather land subsidence driven by local tectonics (and aggravated by local human-induced factors – see below).
18 Although there are no clear-cut definition of such periods, extended heat waves, defined as lasting 10 or more days, appear to become more frequent in the Mediterranean. ‘More Heat and Drought – Can Mediterranean Tourism Survive and Prosper?’, Allen Perry, Department of Geography, University of Wales Swansea, 2001.
19 UNEP/MAP.
20 World Bank World Development Indicators.
21 UNEP/MAP. The Mediterranean coastal population also face strong seasonal variations in tourism – see further Section III below.
22 ‘State and Pressures of the Marine and Coastal Mediterranean Environment’ by European Environment Agency (EEA) in cooperation with UNEP/MAP, 2000.’ Futures for the Mediterranean Basin’, The Blue Plan, Oxford University Press, M. Batisse and M. Grenon M., 1989.
23 ‘The Coastal Population Explosion from Coastal Waters of the World: Trends, Threats, and Strategies’, Don Hinrichsen. Washington DC Island Press, 1998.
24 ‘Rationale for Integrated Management of Mediterranean Coasts’, Marko Prem, Colloquy on Sustainable Development of the Euro-Mediterranean Region, Valencia, Spain, 13-15 March 2003.
25 ‘ Futures for the Mediterranean Basin’, The Blue Plan, Oxford University Press, M. Batisse and M. Grenon M., 1989.
26 ‘Tourism Threats in the Mediterranean’, WWF Background Information.
27 I.e., Balearic islands, Gulf of Lion, Sardinia, Adriatic sea, Ionian sea, and Aegean sea.
28 CORINE Coastal Erosion, European Communities Publication, 1998.
29 Prof. L. D’Alpaos.
30 Prof. E. Pranzini.
31 World Tourism Organization (WTO).
32 Or 2000 or 1999 for some countries.
33 Refers to revenue from foreign nationals, i.e., payment from visitors within the destination country and to the national carriers.
34 Tourism Highlights 2002, WTO.
35 All Mediterranean countries, except Monaco for which tourism arrivals and receipts data is not available.
36 UNEP/MAP (Blue Plan). In Croatia, 96% of total tourist welcome facilities are situated in the coastal areas (A. Kutle, “Turismo ed urbanizzazione sul litorale mediterraneo: L’esempio della costa croata”, Naturopa 88-1998, p.7.)
37 Other tourism-related problems include pollution, waste, water shortages, and habitat degradation or destruction (and the consequent loss of biodiversity).
38 As outlined in “State and Pressures of the Marine and Coastal Mediterranean Environment”, European Environment Agency (EEA) in cooperation with UNEP/MAP, 2000.
39 Although there have been many attempts to protect coastal areas and to encourage sustainable forms of coastal development in the past, few have been successful. The main reason is that they have largely been reactive (as opposed to proactive) as well as sectoral, that is, ignoring fierce competition over coastal resources in many areas.
40 For example, as many other affected regions, the region of Tuscany (Italy) has put in place a legal and regulatory framework as well as a programme of investment priorities in order to protect and support the coastal areas. The integrated management of the Tuscan coastal areas is a fundamental priority of the regional plan and the coastal erosion problem has been specifically addressed by the same since 1989. The region seeks to co-ordinate the many policy areas involved and to translate policy decisions into concrete projects, such as supporting tourism-related small and medium-sized enterprises and innovative solutions (towards for example combating seasonal fluctuations of tourist flows and diverting tourism beyond the traditional coastal areas). The new regional plan has committed a total of € 250 million to safeguard the coastal areas, of which € 96 million exclusively to secure or recuperate eroding coastline (Ms L. Franchini and Mr T. Franci).
41 The convention entered into force in 1978.
42 To this end, it proposes the following three approaches: 1) The search for new models of development in the region based on strong inter-Mediterranean cooperation and a stronger North-South solidarity; 2) The systematic consideration of the effects that developments in any sector or of any kind can have on the environment, particularly with regard to coastal areas; and 3) The promotion of a better understanding of the relationship between the environment and the development of the Mediterranean region.
43 The MAP was subsequently renamed “Action Plan for the Protection of the Marine Environment and the Sustainable Development of the Coastal Areas of the Mediterranean”.
44 The ICARM principles of sustainable development involve: respecting the integrity of the river basin or coastal ecosystem; accepting the limits on the use of resources and the strategic importance of renewable resources for socio-economic development; allowing for the use of resources integrating complementary activities and regulating/separating conflicting ones; ensuring multi-sectoral and multi-level integration in decision-making; linking broad scale management to local level interventions; and allowing for the participation of all actors and stakeholders, particularly local populations, in the planning process to assure good management.
45 There are two prerequisites for the implementation of plans formulated on the basis of a strategy: 1) the plans need to have a legal status that can ensure successful implementation; and 2) a realistic basis, i.e., policies and actions commensurable with the scale of the problems, the capacity of governance, the required human and financial resources, and the necessary technology support. A variety of tools and methods can be used in ICARM for information management, plan development and implementation, including: databases, Geographic Information Systems (GIS), Decision Support Systems (DSS), Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA), economic evaluation of costs and benefits, environment-development scenarios, Carrying Capacity Analysis (CCA), regulation and financial control mechanisms, and awareness and capacity building.
46 Rhodes, Greece (1988-1989 and 1990-1996); Syrian Coastal Area (1989-1992); Izmir Bay, Turkey (1989-1993); Kastela Bay, Croatia (1989-1993); Albanian Coastal Area (1993-1995); Fuka-Matrouh, Egypt (1994-1998); Sfax, Tunisia (1995-1998); Israeli Coastal Area (1997-1999); and Malta (2000-2002).
47 In Algeria, Cyprus, Lebanon, Morocco, and Slovenia.
48 In order to anticipate and reduce the negative impacts of urbanisation, tourism, and infrastructure developments on the coastlines, the Mediterranean states and local authorities are urged to: evaluate the environmental impact of tourism programmes and large-scale projects; assess the carrying capacity of destination sites and ensure that development is limited to the carrying capacities thus defined; strengthen or establish legislative tools, regulations and property management towards controlling tourist urbanisation and protecting the most precious natural sites. This would mean to provide coastal zones subjected to strong tourist developmental pressure with environmental plans for development and land management, to avoid urbanisation sprawl close to coasts and the building of roads parallel or close to coastlines, identify the most remarkable coastal sites (such as wetlands and sand dunes) and implement measures that ensure their protection by creating natural reserves or land agencies for procurement when possible; implement programmes and mechanisms enabling the rehabilitation of mature destination areas and, where possible, financial contributions from the tourism sector towards the protection and management of natural and cultural sites.
49 International Centre for Coastal and Ocean Policy Studies (ICCOPS) and Joint Research Centre of EC in Genoa, Italy, Institute for Remote Sensing and Joint Research Centre of the European Union in Ispra, Italy, and PAP/RAC of the MAP in Split, Croatia.
50 For example, GEF, Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) of UNESCO, UNDP, UNEP, and WWF.
51 The first of which was held in Antalya, Turkey in 1993 under the auspices of The Secretary General of the Council of Europe. The sixth international MEDCOAST conference will be held in Ravenna, Italy, between 7-11 October 2003.
52 “A Practical Guide to the Development and Use of Indicators of Sustainable Tourism”, WTO, 1995; and “Sustainable Tourism Development: Guide for Local Planners”, WTO, 1993.
53 The 15 beneficiary countries of METAP are Albania, Algeria, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Croatia, Cyprus, Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, Libya, Morocco, Palestinian territories, Syria, Slovenia, Tunisia, and Turkey.
54 And implemented by a consortium led by the National Institute for Coastal and Marine Management (RIKZ) of the Dutch Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management. Other consortium members include EUCC-The Coastal Union, IGN France International, the French Environment Institute (IFEN), the Autonomous University of Barcelona (UAB), EADS S&DE (an information technology company), and the Institute for Geological and Mining Research (BRGM).
55 These hydraulic constructions, commonly used for electricity production, flood protection or irrigation purposes, reduce the flow of sediments to deltas thus deregulating natural processes and provoking coastal erosion. From Prof. L. D’Alpaos presentation
56 See also Assembly Resolution 1285 (2002) on "Tapping Europe’s tourism potential" (Report by Ms Stepova - Doc. 9461).
57 Such as the wave energy absorbers in a form of submerged dykes (which facilitate navigation and, apart from absorbing up to 75% of the energy of incoming waves, can convert 30-50% of this hydropower into electricity) presented by Prof. P. Boccotti. See also his book on ‘Wave Mechanics for Ocean Engineering’.