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21 April 1992
Doc. 6599
1403-15/4/92-1-E
Report
on the environment policy in Europe (1990-91)
(Rapporteur: Mrs GRAENITZ, Austria, S.P.Ö)
Problems
Despite an increased awareness of the environmental challenge, the environmental situation is extremely serious and we will soon have reached a stage where no further procrastination can be allowed if we want to avoid irreversible damage which would threaten the very existence of future generations.
An analysis of the general lines of environmental policies in the main member states brings the Rapporteur to two conclusions.
The first is that the national policies are not well enough developed to deal with the dangers facing our planet.
The second is that the international conventions are rarely observed and that countries very frequently neglect to include internationally accepted commitments in their national legislation and policies.
Solutions
Taking these conclusions into account, the Rapporteur proposes to the Assembly to address recommendations to the Committee of Ministers and to governments.
The Assembly recommends that the Committee of Ministers resume consideration of the Assembly proposal formulated in 1990 on a European charter or convention on the environment and also study the possibility of setting up a control body for this instrument.
The Assembly also underlines the necessity of providing specific actions aimed at helping the countries of Central and Eastern Europe to set up policies respectful of the environment.
On the other hand, it is proposed that the Assembly invite member governments to take some concrete measures, such as to systematically implement the international agreements they have signed and ratified, to take into account ecological costs in the same way as other costs, in order to encourage industry to apply environmentally sound industrial methods, and to favour the development of rail and waterways transports.
I. DRAFT RECOMMENDATION
1. Sustainable development can only be reached by a balance between the production of goods and the protection of natural resources. For too long a period the industrial society has acted as if limitless growth, thanks to limitless resources, were possible.
2. Having realised that economic growth has ecological limits, the industrial society has to reorganise its production methods and lifestyle in order to achieve sustainability and protect our already seriously threatened planet.
3. To change the way of life is a big challenge for our countries and presupposes being aware of the environment and the needs of nature, as well as acting accordingly.
4. Good information of the young generations about the problem of nature and of the environment, is of the utmost importance, especially taking account of the fact that the urban way of life does not contribute to this awareness.
5. Human beings should also have the right to a sound environment. These rights can only be guaranteed by international co-operation.
6. By signing and ratifying international agreements, governments foresee adapting their national legislation to their international commitments, and to taking action within a given period of time. These international agreements should also include provisions for monitoring the commitments of Contracting States.
7. In an industrial society such as ours, the consumer should have access to all the necessary information about products, that should be clearly "labelled" in so far as they fulfil the various conditions necessary for the protection of the environment.
8. On the other hand, in view of the citizen's important participation in environment management, it is important to take account of the action and the opinion of non-governmental organisations.
9. The setting up of production techniques based on environmentally sound methods, is not usual because industries prefer to pay the possible cost of their pollution rather than invest in environmentally sound methods which are often expensive. On the other hand, the "polluter pays" principle is not yet anchored in legislations, often because of the difficulty in identifying "the polluter".
10. The problem of waste treatment and management is being discussed in many European countries and different strategies are proposed. Very few member states of the Council of Europe have signed or ratified the Basle Convention on the movements of toxic waste and therefore the implemention of this instrument is, for the moment, impossible.
11. Energy is a very important factor for development because almost every activity needs energy. Knowing that the use of fossil fuels contribute to the greenhouse effect and to possible climate changes, knowing also the potential dangers of nuclear and thermic power, it is important to develop renewable energy production in order to achieve sustainable development.
12. For many years the countries of Central and Eastern Europe have exploited their natural resources without taking any precautions and have based their national economies on an industry that uses polluting production methods thus causing enormous, sometimes irreparable, damage to the environment.
13. Taking these considerations into account the Assembly is convinced that it is essential and urgent for member countries to join forces, at all levels, in order to ensure the best protection for the environment.
14. The Assembly therefore recommends that the Committee of Ministers:
i. resume consideration of the proposal formulated by the Assembly in Recommendation 113O (1990) on the formulation of a European charter or convention on environmental protection and sustainable development, entrust an intergovernmental committee with its formulation, and study the possibility of setting up a control body formed by national experts assisted by independent experts;
ii. provide, within the framework of Vote IX of the General Budget, specific actions such as training sessions, youth programmes, rehabilitation programmes for rivers like the Danube or the Elbe, co-operative twinnings in order to put the countries of Central and Eastern Europe in a position to repair some of the damage and set up policies respectful of the environment;
iii. include in the Council of Europe's intergovernmental work programme projects on ecological awareness. These programmes should take account of differences between member countries;
iv. ensure that the participation of the Council of Europe in the preparation and the work of the 2nd pan-European Conference on the Environment is substantial and corresponds to the role that the organisation can and must play in the protection of the environment;
v. invite member governments to:
a. introduce into the school curricula education on the protection of the environment in the form of theoretical teaching and project work and activities;
b. implement more systematically the international agreements they have signed and ratified, and set up concrete actions in order to ensure their implementation;
c. ensure a full and transparent information of consumers on the goods put on the market or used by industries;
d. take regularly into account the ecological costs, in the same way as other costs, in order to encourage industries to apply environmentally sound industrial methods;
e. conceive provisions that act as economic incentives to industry so that economic and ecological interests can converge;
f. concerning waste, set up at national level and, in accordance with all the partners involved, a policy aimed at reducing and recycling waste to a maximum;
g. encourage the development of transport by rail and waterways which presents less danger for the environment than other means of transport.
II. EXPLANATORY MEMORANDUM
by Mrs Graenitz
"The policy decisions we make in the years immediately ahead will determine whether our children live in a world of development or decline."
(Lester R Brown)
In its previous report on environment policy in Europe (1988-89), presented by our colleague Victor RUFFY, the committee had deliberately chosen to describe the main environmental problems of the day and to examine the work undertaken by the different international organisations and the priorities emerging from that work. Following the debate on that report and in the light of the wish expressed by certain members of the Assembly, the committee had decided to devote a larger part of its next report to consideration of the environment policies implemented by the member countries.
In taking that decision, the committee was aware of the difficulty of assembling comparable data for a large number of countries within a given time frame, that is to say data which could provide a picture of the policy conducted by the countries in the same conditions.
Despite all the efforts made by the various parties, it has not been possible to obtain the same level of documentation for all the countries. Thus, for some of them, we have obtained extremely full information, frequently because the preparation of our report coincided with the publication of a national report. On other hand, full information could not be obtained from other countries, and we were obliged to make do with fragmentary data. Your Rapporteur hopes that the report will nevertheless provide a more or less reliable picture of current trends in the environment policies of most of the member countries.
PREFACE
Twenty years ago in 1972 the International Environment Conference took place in Stockholm and launched worldwide programmes to enhance the state of the environment. Today, twenty years later, national achievements can be reported, but the overall health of the planet has deteriorated and the global threats are more evident than ever before.
We need concise and consistent political initiatives in Europe and worldwide to face this challenge and build an environmentally sustainable future for the whole world. This report on European environmental policy is just one further step in assessing the state of the environment and suggesting ways to overcome degradation and implement policies which enhance sustainable development.
CHAPTER I: THE MAIN QUESTIONS
1. Building awareness of our natural resources
Sustainable development and environmentally sound technologies can only be reached by people who believe in a balances form of life and production. Governments can just provide the framework by laws, directives or incentives, the people have to live in a way that enables them to use the natural resources without abusing them.
For a long period the industrial society has acted as if limitless growth in an unlimited world were possible. Having realised that economic growth has ecological limites the industrial society has to reorganise production and lifestyle in order to achieve sustainability and protect our already threatened planet. To change the way of living is a big challenge to many people and countries and presupposes being ware of the environment and the needs of nature as well as acting accordingly.
What is very important is that everyone in every country realises that - as Gro Harlem Brundtland once said: "if everyone does as they please in the short run we will all be losers in the long run".
In the different countries of Europe cultures and upbringing are different and so is the relationship to nature. It will be necessary to develop different models for the various countries to develop within their proper cultural awareness for our natural environment and care for nature.
2. Environmental education
Especially for the young generation information about the natural bases of our live and education to respect and foster nature is of utmost importance. In large areas of Europe the urban way of life has alienated young people from open spaces, plants and wild animals, as well as the everyday experience of growing crops or breeding animals.
Nature is often seen as leisure activity like a zoo and not as part of the same world humans are part of. Education at schools or youth groups has to take this into account and give to young people the change to experience nature, understand cycles and adept their own lives so that this balance in our world can be reached and there is place for people, industrial activities and recreation, wild life and consumption. Environmental education at schools can be incorporated in the curricula in many ways and according to the systems in the respective countries. Two facts should be taken so that the young people realize the interdependence of life on earth; the other that the most effective learning is done by doing. Theoretical knowledge only does not necessarily lead to a change in habits, project work and activities inside and outside the classroom can be far more successful.
3. The human right to a sound and livable environment
The Human Rights Commission of the Council of Europe has become an institution of paramount importance for people who were deprived from fair trials in their own countries. The very existence of the Human Rights Commission has certainly helped to avoid oppression and injustice of governments and led to better legislation.
Human beings should also have the right to breath fresh air, have access to clean water and crops from unpolluted soils. Such goals cannot be reached by one country on her own but only by international co-operation. A task not new to the countries, as already in 1872 Switzerland made an effort to install a European organisation to protect the nesting sites of migratory birds.
Since then more than 150 environmental agreements have been adopted, most of them in the last two decades. These international treaties include a variety of subjects, for example reduction of transboundary air pollutants, endangered species protection, hazardous waste export and acid rain.
Europe as well as the world is now facing the challenge of devising international rules to protect the global environment. On a national level problems can be solved by co-ordinated legislation, implementation and enforcement. By signing and ratifying international agreements countries commit themselves to pass national laws to, for example, reduce pollutants and monitor emissions.
To be successful such treaties have to require governments to take action within a given period of time and have to include the option to update the goals should new scientific evidence become available. What international treaties should also comprise would be provisions for monitoring compliance of the member states with the agreed aims, availability of information about the actin taken and sanctions for non-compliance.
Based on the model of the Human Rights Commission a European Environmental Commission consisting of independent scientists should be installed and meet regularly to review the implementation of international agreements, advise countries, inspect reduction aims and provide an international platform to discuss and inform about compliance or non-compliance.
4. Consumers
In an industrial society such as Europe the role of the consumer has to be taken into account when taking about environmentally sound production methods.
When asked whether they would rather buy products friendly to the environment people are willing to do so, but often lack the necessary information about the goods.
Some European countries have introduced special labels - like the blue angel in Germany - to indicate the "green" quality of a product.
Warning signs in industry, traffic and transportation are international and used everywhere, so that everybody recognises them and acts accordingly. In a continent like Europe, which has tightly-woven trade links, a common label for consumers products would be necessary, a sticker known by everyone between Norway and Italy, Ireland and Turkey.
Such a label should be given to products fulfilling the following conditions:
1. the raw material are environmentally sound and can be recycled;
2. the production methods used are sustainable and healthy to the workers;
3. the packaging is either returnable (deposit) or recyclable;
4. the product and its use does not damage the environment and health;
5. the price is fair compared to other products;
6. the energy consumption in production and use is minimised.
For the information of the consumer legislation like the "Right to Know-Act" in the United States of America will be necessary in countries where such laws do not exist. In Sweden, for example, people have had the right to gain access to information concerning their neighborhoods for more than 150 years. Information about the use of natural resources like air and water and emissions lead to a more economic use in production, less use being a competitive advantage for the product in sales, and to more awareness in choosing the products by the consumers.
Avoiding waste is a common task of production and consumption and the more people are informed the more they can insist on waste minimization in industry and packaging. The earth is a closed system and raw materials like metals or oil will run out eventually, so that careful use and recycling systems are necessary. Land is a not renewable goods and dumped waste needs land, may pollute ground water tables and emit green house gases. Avoiding and recycling waste is a challenge that can only be mastered by a co-operation of informing industries and informed consumers.
5. Economic instruments
Sustainable growth and a livable environment can be reached if on national and international level a wide range of policies is being used, including incentives tailored for industries. For a long time the use of the "common goods" like air was free in many countries. Where there was plenty of water industries did not have to pay for pollution of lakes and rivers. There are still countries using the seas and oceans as seemingly "endless" dump for waste. The costs for repairing the environmental damages and cleaning air or water were born by others, th public of the very country or in the case of airborne pollution the public of other countries. The principle "the polluter pays" is not yet anchored everywhere in the legislation, perhaps because of it is often difficult to detect the "polluter".
In order to encourage industries to apply environmentally sound methods instruments have to be developed or - if existing - refined to allocate environmental costs to products as other costs are allocated.
This can be done by laws requiring certain standards in emissions. For new production lines such requirements should ask for clean technologies, for existing ones end-of-pipe installations. Models like the "Bubble" used in the United States allocate a certain amount of emission to a company or area, the distribution within the various production lines depends on the responsible. This enables companies to modernise and calculate costs over a fixed period of time, using the best available technology.
Special taxes for environmentally dangerous materials or procedures can lead to a phase-out, as well as taw-incentives and reductions for the use of advanced methods before they enforced by law. In Austria, for example, people who bought cars with catalytic converters before it became the law got tax reduction up to almost the price of the device.
Taxes could also be used to make it attractive for industries to introduce new methods at the earliest possible stage, so that they can avoid taxation. In Germany there is a tax on water pollution designed to encourage industries to threat waste water and escape the tax.
Research and development of new technologies can be subsidised by governments, or accelerated by a planed phase-out of some materials; a good example for the latter policy are CFCs.
In many European countries the producer is liable for damage caused to the consumer by the product. This liability could be redefined so that environmental damage is included, which would effect production and prices and may lead to the disappearance of some hazardous products or materials.
Economical incentives are an important took in the policy of industrial settlement. Only when they are designed to reach economical as well as ecological aims industrial settlement will be successful in the long run.
That such programmes cost a lot of money and may lead to more expensive goods is a fact; on he other hand the sooner changes are made the cheaper they are and the less we transfer charges to future generations.
6. Post-communist Europe
For the first time environmental reports from the new member countries of the Council of Europe, CSFR, Hungary and poland are included. Having established democratic governments and administrations, these countries were able to take stock of the decades of communist regimes and had to realize that what the German politician Jo Leinen (member of the government of Saar) once quoted is true: "Those, who exploit people will also exploit the natural resources". More than forty years of communist economic politics brought the countries to the edge of ecological disaster.
For many years production was carried on without concern for the surrounding nature. The high energy consumption - not limited due to natural resources of mostly brown coal - and the use of raw materials of lower quality led to a way of production where higher input caused higher emissions and more waste. Considering the number of people employed the former communist countries in Europe can be described as one of the highest industrialised part of the world. At the same time environmental protection and reparation were at a very low level as highly sulfurous coal was burned in inadequate furnaces without filters, waste, be it hazardous or not was dumped and rivers polluted due to lack of waste water treatment. The West European countries took advantage of the poor information given to the people in the communist countries by exporting their own hazardous waste to their sites.
It seems that today, after the "iron curtain" has fallen, there is a new ecological curtain in Central Europe between the countries, where exploited in very form was administered by authoritarian governments and other countries, where people and governments learned about pollution and reacted by changing policies and habits. The river Danube for example does not reach acceptable water quality east of the Austrian border and in the capital of Hungary, Budapest, the emissions are three and a half times higher than in Vienna.
The degradation of the environment in Central and Eastern Europe has to be taken into account when planing the economical development. Energy production and consumption, transport on road or rail, industrial reorganisation and housing must be considered in a an economical as well as ecological context, because otherwise the costs of cleaning up the environment might become too high for anyone to pay.
CHAPTER II: THREATS
1. Depletion of the ozone layer
The most eminent and discussed danger is certainly the depletion of the ozone layer, which may increase rapidly in the northern hemisphere. As Antarctica is a continent the accumulated air pollutants and the cloud formation led to serious depletion of the ozone layer, protecting shield against UV-rays, there. The fact that Arctica is a sea might lead to depletion elsewhere in the north, perhaps above parts of Europe.
The Montreal Protocol provides the framework for a phase-out of CFCs and halogens, but due to the longevity of chlorine and the slow chemical reaction it takes decades to reduce this pollutant in the atmosphere. The effects on vegetation, animals, people and climate may be serious and only people can protect themselves from the sun. Plants need the sun to survive, even if the hard radiation damages them.
The national plan to phase out CECs should be shortened and where alternative chemicals cannot be provided, CFCs have to be recaptured and recycled. The industrial countries, having used CFCs for often frivolous purposes like cheese in spray cans, should now take the responsibility to give technical and financial aid to developing and post-communist countries.
2. Tropospherical ozone
On sunny summer days continental Europe is covered by a layer of tropospherical ozone, like a big lake reaching from the Netherlands to Hungary. As a secondary pollutant ozone is formed of VOCs and NOxes when the sun is shining. The primary pollutants being airborne lead to ozone formation and high levels in "clean air regions", often woodlands, effecting plants and trees. The stop the ozone formation the primary pollutants have to be reduced where they are emitted.
This means reductions in traffic, industrial processes, reduction of the use of VOC, prohibiting the burning of fields after the harvest, regulating heating of homes and many other measures. Measures which are explained to people with difficulty, because it is not easy to understand that I am not allowed to drive, so that the air is clean 100 km from my place in two days.
In Europe we have been used for a century to an abundance of crops; too much ozone in the troposphere and too little in the stratosphere may change this.
3. Abandoned waste dumping sites
The problem of solid waste treatment is being discussed in all European countries and there are different strategies pursued to manage waste. These actions - be they the banning of one-way container or using the heat of burning waste for energy purposes - are mostly concerned with today's waste. Buried, often in unknown places, is the waste of earlier decades or even centuries.
The problem of old waste sides is manyfold, as at the time of dumping chemical reactions were not foreseen or even unknown and different types of waste often mixed. This had led to potential danger to soil, surface water and water tables. Chemicals emerging through longtime processes in the dumps can leak into water, gases may develop, that in the best of cases only emit bad odors. As many of the sites are unknown it might easily happen that homes or facilities are built above these sites and the leaking chemicals affect people, plants and animals.
To find these old sites, investigate and clean them is an enormous task for the European countries. An exchange of know-how and technical help is necessary so that the most dangerous and threatening waste dumps could be found and treated, especially in those areas of Europe where there are substantial water reserves underground or great river basins.
4. Intensive farming
The invention of artificial fertilisers and pesticides marked the change in European agriculture from often too little to enough or even too much crop production. Heavy fertilising may yield higher output, on the other hand the amount of nutrients not needed by plants is washed into the soil and subsequently water with the result that in some European areas with very intensive farming the water quality does not comply with WHO standards. The North Sea being already a problem area has not only high charges of airborne pollution washed down by rain, but remnants of fertiliser is washed into the sea by rivers. Some countries have started programmes to reduce fertilisation by giving limits to farmers, some subsidise biological farming without artificial fertiliser.
More information to farmers and consumers about healthier farming methods and products may solve this problem better then stringent legislation only.
5. War
War, the use and the production of weapons is a greater threat to the environment than Europeans often think. This may be in connection with the belief that after the second world war there would be no more wars in Europe. This decade has just begun and our European belief was proved wrong.
Fighting and bombing destroys buildings and woods, pollutes water and damages supply lines. Broken weapons and tanks, the waste of war, have to be deposited. Environmental disasters are still used as a threat in war. War brings enormous suffering to people and degrades their environment.
Weapons stored in underground bunkers or other facilities may present potential danger if there is not strictest control who has access. It might have happened that during the process of overthrowing communist rules in Eastern and Central Europe some deposits have been overlooked. It is very important for the safety of the European countries to register all weapons and dispose of them in the least damaging way.
In the last weeks Europeans learned that the production of nuclear weapons in the former Soviet Union has caused pollution in Arctica, due to radioactive waste dumped into the sea from submarines and factories.
6. Energy production
Energy is a very important factor for the development of society, because almost every activity is connected with the need for energy. How and where energy is produced, how it is distributed, who fixes he pics and how available is it to everyone and in which amount are questions that have to be answered in every country. The biggest question is "How can we organise energy production and consumption in order to achieve sustainable development?"; knowing that the use of fossil fuels contribute to the "Greenhouse effect" and a possible climate change.
Electricity production in Europe relies in most countries on thermal power stations, not all of which have the necessary air-cleaning equipment or are constructed in a way that surplus heat can be used for heating buildings. In Central and East European countries brown coal is used, which adds to the problem of air pollution.
Nuclear power stations have no emissions of air pollutants; on the other hand the danger of emitting radiation in case of accident has caused an increasing number of European countries to avoid nuclear power stations or phase out of nuclear energy. Where to dispose radioactive high and medium level waste is a problem still far from being solved. A problem that is put to the new democracies in Eastern and Central Europe, whose radioactive waste used to be returned to the Soviet Union.
The answer to the future energy need may be renewable sources of energy like water, sun, wind, energy plants and biomass. The amount of production of electricity in this field varies from country to country.
As not electricity but also energy for heating or cooling and transport derive from renewable sources it would be important to look closer into this potential.
The Commission of Agriculture is kindly asked to look further into the matter of plants for energy production and biomass and the Commission for Science into the research in renewable sources of energy.
CHAPTER III: ACTION AT INTERNATIONAL LEVEL
1. Council of Europe Action
The environmental activities carried out in the intergovernmental sector are mainly concerned with the protection of nature and the preparation of legal instruments.
With regard to nature-related activities during the period covered by the report, it is important to mention, in addition to the considerable activity generated by the application of the Bern Convention, the contribution of the second pan-European Conference of Ministers of the Environment. This conference, which will probably be held in late 1993 or early 1994 in Switzerland, will be a follow to the conference held at Dobris Castle (Prague) from 21 to 23 June 1991 at the initiative of the Environment Minister of the Czech and Slovak Federal Republic.
Following that conference, and in the context of preparations for a second conference, the Council of Europe was given the task of putting forward proposals for nature conservation and drafting the chapter on this subject in the report on the state of the environment in Europe which is to be drawn up by the Commission of the European Communities.
This merely confirms the Council of Europe's natural role as a "Forum" for pan-European intergovernmental co-operation in respect of nature conservation, particularly with reference to the Rio Conference and its follow-up.
In the legal field, the Council of Europe has continued the preparation of two particularly important instruments on environmental protection: the draft convention on civil liability for damage resulting from activities dangerous to the environment and the draft recommendation on soil protection.
The first instrument deals with some thorny problems, including the legal definition of the environment, the definition of the concepts of damage, person liable, person entitled to claim damages, causal link, compensation, etc.
The second instrument is not confined to proposing the adoption of certain principles to govern soil protection policy, but also suggests practical action, such as administrative and/or legislative measures providing for soil impact studies; national surveys for the purpose of determining the extent of deterioration of the soil, including an assessment of causes and the monitoring of changes in the soil, etc.
The Standing Conference of Local and Regional Authorities of Europe, for its part, has pursued activities which - for a variety of reasons - have found no place in the intergovernmental field. For example, the conference has reviewed municipal policies relating to the environment, identified measures that could be taken at local level to combat the greenhouse effect, put forward proposals for policies to guarantee an adequate supply of good quality drinking water, and suggested forms of co-operation between local authorities and their associations in the management of lakes and rivers in Europe.
These themes are usually dealt with by means of studies, colloquies or conference, leading to the presentation of reports and resolutions for adoption at the annual plenary session of the conference.
With regard to the work of the Assembly and our committee more particularly, it was at the beginning of 1990 that the Assembly adopted the committee's proposal that the Committee of Ministers be asked to entrust to a committee of intergovernmental experts the task of preparing a charter or convention on the protection of the environment and sustainable development.
Being aware of the role which the Parliamentary Assembly could play in relation to the new geo-political landscape of Europe, the committee organised in Vienna, from 23 to 26 October 1990, the first pan-European Interparliamentary Conference on East-West Co-operation in Environmental Matters. The second conference will be held in Austria and Hungary, on the Danube, from 18 to 20 October 1992 and will take as its theme the pan-European management of freshwater resources.
The committee was also represented by its first Vice-Chairman, Victor Ruffy at the first pan-European Conference of Environment Ministers held at Dobris from 21 to 23 June 1992. Although that conference, like the Rio World Conference, is an intergovernmental one, your Rapporteur is convinced that the Parliamentary Assembly's presence is essential, given the considerable impetus it can impart to this work through the national parliaments.
The 5th Conference of European Border Regions organised by the Assembly's Committee on the Environment, Regional Planning and Local Authorities in co-operation with the Standing Conference of Local and Regional Authorities of Europe and the Nordic Council in Rovaniemi (Finland) from 18 to 21 June 1991 has paid particular attention to the ecological situation in border regions of the countries of the former communist bloc who became now partners for an active tranfrontier co-operation. In its final declaration the conference made a plea for "harmonisation and uniform application of environmental legislation across boders, the aim being to establish standard conditions for protection of the living environment...".
In the context of the "European Tourism Year" the Committee on the Environment, Regional Planning and Local Authorities has taken the initiative to organise a Colloquy on the Integration of Rural Tourism in European societies, held in Strasbourg on 11 January 1990. On the other hand the Council of Europe's "Naturopa Centre" organised a Colloquy in Budapest from 25 to 27 September 1990 on "Specific Environmental Problems" arising from the increase of tourism in Eastern and Central Europe. Several members of the Assembly took an active part in this colloquy which had focused its attention on the problems of environment.
From 1991, the Assembly's Environment Committee decided to devote fresh attention to the problem of the management of water resources, considering that the time was ripe for the elaboration of guidelines for a pan-European policy in this field. At the initiative of the Rapporteur for this subject, Charles Pistre, the committee decided to launch an action programme under the title "Freshwater Europe". This initiative, based on the terms of reference given to the committee by Assembly Order No. 462, involves partnership with four groups of interlocutors directly concerned: decision-makers, industry, scientists and technicians and the non-governmental organisations. This wide-ranging programme of study and action will culminate in the spring of 1993, with the presentation of a secondy report to the Assembly.
In view of the fact that this problem is raised in the chapter concerned with national policies, your Rapporteur wishes finally to lay stress on the committee's work on the crucial problem of transalpine transit traffic. Following a hearing on this subject held in Innsbruck in May 1990, a report will be submitted to the Assembly in the coming months.
2. The approach of the OECD
As in the past, the OECD's environmental activities have focused on four main themes: economics and the environment; pollution and waste; chemicals; and urban affairs.
In a continuing endeavour to integrate environmental problems into other fields of activity, OECD has stepped up its work inter alia on the links between economics and the environment. Thus, at its May 1990 meeting at Ministerial level, the Council of the OECD reaffirmed its determination to make the organisation's activities consistent with the concept of sustainable development. It was with this aim in view that OECD participated in the Bergen Conference on Regional Follow-up to the Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development, where it contributed a status report on its work in this connection.
The Final Declaration of the Group of Seven Economic Summit meeting at Houston in July 1990 encouraged OECD to step up its activities on environment and the economy, with particular emphasis on the early development of environmental indicators and the design of market-oriented approaches that can be used to achieve environmental objectives.
On the subject of pollution and wastes, it is interesting to note that OECD's work in this area has focused on waste minimisation and recycling, on the one hand, and a policy approach for reducing transfrontier movements of waste, on the other. This approach distinguishes between wastes intended for final disposal, to which the principle of national autonomy should be applied, and those intended for recycling operations, for which it might be desirable to develop export controls which at the same time would not hinder resource or material recovery.
A new programme was launched in 1990 to focus on ways in which the OECD member countries can foster technologies that will contribute to the achievement of the goal of sustainable development. To this end, a number of new projects will be conducted in 1991 by the International Energy Agency and several OECD Directorates.
Where chemicals are concerned, work continues on the development of risk reducting strategies for specific substances. Initial efforts have focused on flame retardants, mercury, lead, cadmium and methylene chloride. Out of concern to ensure an improved standard of information, plans have been made for a workshop to find ways of helping developing countries to implement international information exchange schemes on hazardous chemicals.
The main emphasis in the fourth sector of the OECD's activity in connection with the environment, that of urban affairs, was on the new approaches to be implemented in order to promote co-ordination of sectoral policies and integration of environmental considerations in urban planning and management, again with reference to sustainable economic growth.
Thus, in 1990, the city of Berlin hosted an International Conference on Urban Environment and Economic Development which focused on the environmental implications of urban energy efficiency, structural change and urban transport.
A report was also prepared on the application of new information technologies to urban functioning, in terms of both urban services and management. In the context of this activity, a major conference on cities and new technologies in December 1990 brought together 270 participants from 23 countries. Through its work on the subject of urban land markets, the OECD is contributing to European studies on regional planning. Among other things, it has drawn up a report on policy issues related to such matters as the re-use of derelict land, land price fluctuations and the problems associated with meeting future land requirements for urban growth.
3. The undertakings in the context of the Economic Commission for Europe
The Final Act of CSCE gave impetus to the 1979 high-level meeting within the framework of the ECE on the protection of the environment which adopted the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution; the first multilateral legal instrument in this field.
At present, thirty-one states and the European Economic Community have ratified the convention and actively participate in its implementation. The convention not only lays down agreed principles for co-operation but also initiated a dynamic process of further action. Supplementary protocols to the convention cover a range of specific subjects.
In 1984, the Protocol on the Long-Term Financing of the Co-operative Programme for Monitoring and Evaluation of the Long-Range Transmission of Air Pollutants in Europe (EMEP) was adopted and has since been ratified by thirty-one Parties. By now, EMEP encompasses more than 100 monitoring stations in twenty-seven Parties to the convention.
In 1985, in Helsinki a Protocol on the Reduction of Sulphur Emissions or their Transboundary Fluxes by at least 30% was adopted, and entered into force in 1987. In 1988, following the meeting of the Executive Body of the Convention in Sofia (Bulgaria),twenty-seven Parties to the convention signed the Protocol concerning the Control of Emissions of Nitrogen Oxides or their Transboundary Fluxes, with a package of internationally agreed abatement measures starting with a "freeze" of emissions from 1994.
A recent review of national strategies and policies for air pollution showed that at least twenty-six member states have achieved a net reduction of sulphur emissions as compared to 1980. Twelve countries have actually reduced their emissions by 30% or more, even before the 1993 target year. Overall emissions of sulphur dioxide in Europe have already dropped by more than 20% between 1980 and 1990. Ten countries have announced long-term national reductions of about 50% or more, four of them even more than 65%.
Another key area where legal instruments relevant to environmental protection have been elaborated and are continously updated within the ECE is that of the transport of dangerous goods.
A convention has been adopted on civil liability for damage caused during carriage of dangerous goods by road, rail and inland navitation vessels (CRTD) and was opened for signature in February 1990.
It is based on the principles of strict and limited liability for damage caused to life, property and the environment, the channelling of responsibility and compulsory insurance.
In the light of the outcome of the Vienna and Sofia CSCE meetings, a Convention on Transboundary Impacts of Industrial Accidents and a Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes is being elaborated. Both conventions are expected to be finalised by 1992.
Negotiation and co-operative action have lead to a number of ECE policy declarations and decisions in the field of transboundary waters.
Examples include the ECE Principles Regarding Co-operation in the Field of Transboundary Waters (1987) and the ECE Code of Conduct on Accidential Pollution of Transboundary Inland Waters (1990).
A task force with Austria as leading country is currently elaborating a concept of responsibility and liability regarding transboundary water pollution.
As the most recent follow-up to the Declaration on Low- and Non-Waste Technology and Re-utilisation and Recycling of Wastes, adopted at the high-level meeting of 1979, a regional strategy for integrated waste management is being elaborated.
In 1988 ECE governments adopted a Declaration on Conservation of Flora, Fauna and their Habitats. The elaboration of a European Red List of Threatened Animals and Plants is under completion, together with recommendations to ECE governments on its application at both national and international levels. The preparation of the Code of Practice on the Conservation of Threatened Animals and Plants and other Species of Particular Conservation Concern in Europe has been initiated.
In 1989 ECE governments adopted the Charter on Groundwater Management.
Furthermore the ECE has been involved in most of the major international events in the field of the environment. It has, in co-operation with the Norwegian Government organised the Bergen Conference on the Follow-up to the World Commission on Environment and Development.
The ECE has also participated in the CSCE meetings on the protection of the environment (Sofia, Bulgaria), on economic co-operation in Europe (Bonn, Federal Republic of Germany) and on the Mediterranean (Palma de Majorca, Spain).
4. The environmental policy of the European Community
The conclusions adopted by the Council in October 1990 identified four priority areas for European Community environmental policy:
- energy and climate change;
- solid wastes;
- integration of environmental policy into other policies;
- water quality.
In order to achieve the goals of its environmental policy, the European Community has consolidated the links between its overall economic strategy and its environmental policy. With this in mind, the Commission has taken initiatives in response to the need to integrate environmental considerations into other policy areas, including agriculture, the internal market, transport and energy.
Significant progress was made in the legislative field, as the Council adopted or agreed texts relating to the Community Norspa project, urban waster water, the community eco-label, the protection of natural habitats and pollution by lorries.
The most important activities of the European Community
In September 1991, the Commission approved a communication to the Council concerning an overall strategy to limit carbon dioxide omissions and to promote energy efficiency and security of supply. It envisages the introduction of a combined energy and carbon dioxide tax, as a means of meeting the stabilisation target.
Pending a decision on the site and starting date for the European Environment Agency, the Commission undertook a series of technical preparations in co-operation with the relevant bodies in the member states. A Parliament resolution deplored the European Community's failure to decide on a seat for the Agency.
In February 1991, the Commission formally adopted the proposal for a Regulation on a Community award scheme for an eco-label which it had approved in November 1990. The Council recorded its agreement in December 1991.
Work in the waste management field focused primarily on implementing the communication from the Commission on the "Community strategy for waste management".
In May 1991, the Council adopted a directive on the treatment of urban waste water, and in December it adopted another Directive on the protection of waters against pollution caused by nitrates from agriculture.
European Community international co-operation
One of the Commission's priorities was to prepare for the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development. In particular, the Commission took part in two meetings of the preparatory committee for the conference which were held in Geneva.
As far as the Council of Europe is concerned, the Commission put to the Council a proposal authorising the Commission to participate in the negotiations on the preparation of an International Convention on damage resulting from activities dangerous to the environment.
As part of its co-operation with the countries of Central and Eastern Europe, the European Community continued to provide support in the form of funding for several environmental projects in those countries under the PHARE programme.
The future priorities in Operation PHARE for the environment, which is carried out on behalf of Hungary, Poland, Rumania, Bulgaria, the Czech and Slovak Federal Republic and Albania, are classified in five categories:
Category A
improvement and strengthening of the capacity and efficiency of political institutions and protagonists by means of:
- a data base;
- monitoring;
- reliable analyses;
- studies on the state of the environment;
- studies on the strategies to be adopted;
- technical assistance.
Category B
development of training, information and knowledge of environmental problems.
Category C
preparation of feasibility studies on priority projects to
facilitate future funding by the European Community.
Category D
use of "direct investments" to facilitate the funding of pilot projects concerning preventive infrastructure and major and urgent environmental problems.
Category E
development of a regional programme facilitating internal co-operation among the countries of Eastern Europe in order to deal with transboundary pollution issues.
The Community's commitments concerning Central and Eastern Europe also involve:
1. An advisory role for the Commission in environmental matters:
a. Export of waste from Germany to Poland.
The Commission has studied this matter and is currently seeking a solution to the problem of community waste. In this particular case, an agreement between the two states could be reached in the context of the Germano-Polish Council on the environment set up in March 1991.
b. The Gabsikovo-Nagymaros complex (dam on the Danube)
Hungary and Czechoslovakia have embarked on the parallel construction of a dam complex on the Danube between the two countries, which requires a diversion of the river.
Given the environmental risks, both countries sought an opinion from the Commission, at the beginning of 1991, on the feasibility of continuing the work, in the light of an environmental impact study.
2. Active participation by the Commission
The Budapest Regional Environment Centre, an independent organisation whose membership comprises the United States, the countries of Eastern Europe and the EC Commission, was established in September 1990.
In addition, in November 1991 the Council approved the Convention on the International Commission for the Protection of the Elbe.
European Community financial instruments
In December 1991, the Council recorded its agreement on a proposal for a Regulation establishing a financial instrument for the environment (LIFE), the objective being to promote the development and implementation of the Community's environment policy and legislation.
In March 1991, the Council adopted the Regulation on action by the Community for the protection of the environment in the Mediterranean region (Medspa). It also adopted the Regulation on action by the Community to protect the environment in the coastal areas and coastal waters of the Irish Sea, North Sea, Baltic Sea and North-East Atlantic Ocean (Norspa).
The purpose of these two instruments, which will be incorporated in LIFE, is to make a financial contribution to pilot or demonstration projects and to measures to improve the environment and strengthen co-operation in the regions in question.
5. Pan-European and global initiatives
Your Rapporteur thought it was not necessary to report on this item which is the subject of a specific report to be presented by Mr Bondevik (AS/Loc (43) 29).
CHAPTER IV: NATIONAL POLICIES
INTRODUCTION
When the Committee on the Environment, Regional Planning and Local Authorities presented its last report on environment policy in Europe (1988-89) (Rapporteur: Mr Ruffy), the Assembly asked to be provided with a summary of the policies of Council of Europe member countries.
Your Rapporteur would have liked to provide exhaustive information on each of the countries. Unfortunately, that was not possible in view of the fact that, for those countries which are not mentioned or for which very little information is available, the relevant documentation was not received in time. Your Rapporteur is also aware that, for those countries which are mentioned below and despite the careful attention paid to the collection of data, the information provided may not be exhaustive.
France
In recent years, France has made considerable efforts in the environmental field. These efforts have focused on water, wastes, consumer information and energy policy.
In order to guarantee the highest quality of fresh water and the rehabilitation of watercourses, the investment capacity of the river basin financial agencies has been doubled and will amount to 81 million FF for the period 1992-96. The funds in question will be obtained primarily from the taxes and fees paid by polluters (local authorities, industries and farms).
With regard to waste materials, the main aim of the "waste plan" adopted in 1990 is to eliminate traditional dumping grounds within ten years. The programme of waste management provides for modern methods in respect of each category of wastes:
- household waste, including packages, which will be recovered (by means of a deposit system for example) and processed by industries;
- ordinary industrial waste - equated with household waste - will, like household waste, be treated and then passed on to specialised firms or intermunicipal treatment plants;
- "special" industrial waste (toxic products, chemicals, etc) will be recycled, processed or treated in specific plants (10 as of now, 30 of them in 10 years' time).
- radioactive waste (from nuclear plants, certain industries or hospitals) will be handled in appropriate facilities.
To ensure proper consumer information and as an incentive to producers, a label "French Standard - environment" has been created for healthy or environment friendly products.
With regard to energy, France has deliberately opted for nuclear energy, which constitutes 70% of its total production. France has 55 nuclear power stations, the highest number in Europe. One of the consequences of this policy is a modest level of carbon dioxide emissions (2 tonnes per capita compared with 3 tonnes per capita and per annum in Germany). Eight reactors were under construction in 1990, while two have been cancelled.
As a result of the new technologies employed in steam power stations (improved efficiency, installation of filters etc), sulphur dioxide emissions have declined by 60% since 1980.
Moreover, several measures have been taken to combat air pollution, (lower taxes on unleaded petrol, reduction of the speed limit in towns to 50 km/h).
In the context of community policy, France has adopted the aim of stabilising its carbon dioxide emissions at 1990 levels by the year 2000.
Nuclear energy will remain a cornerstone of French energy policy in the future. It is planned to control nuclear hazards by means of security measures concerning the nuclear power stations themselves, as well as enrichment centres and centres for the reprocessing of radio active waste.
Three new institutions have been established to facilitate the implementation of this environment policy:
- the Environment and Energy Control Agency (ADEME) which now groups together three previously distinct administrative departments: the AFME, the Agency for waste materials (Anred) and the Agency for air quality;
- the National Institute for the industrial environment and risks;
- The French Environment Institute.
Germany
For the sake of combating pollution of the ozone layer, the Montreal Protocol provides for a 50% reduction in the output of CFCs by 1999. Germany has decided to make a substantial effort in this field, and Minister Töpfer has undertaken to stop the production of CFCs by 1994. German industry, for its part, has already decided to phase out the production and consumption of CFCs completely by the year 1995.
The policy implemented by Mr Töpfer is based on efforts to find solutions in consultation with the industrial community. If this does not work, legislation is enacted.
The voluntary introduction of catalytic converters has made more rapid progress in Germany than in the other countries of the European Community, as a result of fiscal incentives. (Switzerland and Austria, which are not members of the EEC, have simply prohibited the registration of new vehicles not equipped with catalytic converters).
In 1991, Germany considered introducing a fee for motorway use of the type already levied in Switzerland. The protests of the European Commission caused this plan to be abandoned, but it could resurface in view of the fact that Germany, has a transit country, as a heavy traffic burden, with pernicious consequences.
With regard to wastes, a new directive from the Minister of the Environment provides for a reduction in several stages. From 1993, all industries will be obliged to take back the packaging of their products.
The merchandising unions have expressed their disagreement and have established a new system ("Duales System") to avoid being obliged to take back packaging at supermarkets. The idea is that every household will receive a second dustbin for packages marked with a green point. Unfortunately, the quantity of waste is not diminishing and there are no technologies for certain types of recycling (for example a single process for the different kinds of plastic).
A new, serious and urgent requirement for the German Government is that of remedying the extremely serious damage to the environment in the former German Democratic Republic.
Some examples will suffice to illustrate the situation in the new Länder:
- the destruction of the forests in the new Länder is more serious than in the old Länder. Nearly 36% of the East German forests have been damaged;
- there is an alarming level of nitrates, iron and organic pollutants in the drinking water of the new Länder;
- the sewage system in the new Länder is in a deplorable condition. No maintenance work has been carried out since the 1950s;
- the number of sewage treatment plants is utterly inadequate.
Denmark
For some years, Denmark has given priority to its energy policy. Being highly dependent on oil imports for its energy needs, Denmark was seriously affected by the 1973-74 crisis. Since then, the country has begun to invest in the search for new technologies.
Today 33% of its energy needs are produced by electro-thermal technology which combines the production of electricity with the heating of dwellings. This technology is much more efficient than conventional power plants.
As a result of these policies and the existence of a large number of wind power stations, carbon-dioxide emissions in Denmark are at the same level as in 1972.
Austria
Like Switzerland, Austria is both an alpine country and a country of transit. For these reasons, it has a highly efficient environment policy.
Thanks to its geographical situation, Austria produces much of the energy it needs by means of hydro-electric plants, and has accordingly declared its intention of pursuing the aim of a "nuclear free Central Europe".
One of the main goals of its environment policy is that of achieving a 30% reduction in nitrogen oxide emissions by 1998.
At the same time, the catalytic converter is now compulsory for petrol engine cars and a test, at two-yearly intervals, to monitor the proper functioning of the converter will soon be made compulsory.
Since 1989, lorries authorised to use the roads at night have been compulsorily equipped with anti-noise devices, and their exhaust emissions will also be regulated from 1992.
The transit agreement between Austria and the European Community provides for a restriction of choice in respect of the modes of traffic in the goods transport sector. The aim is to encourage the development of the railways. Traffic emissions will be limited by a system of "ecological points". The different routes through Austria are classified accordingly. Traffic on certain roads should decline by 60% as a result of stricter regulations concerning permissible emissions (ecological points).
The increase in transit traffic brought about by the single market should be controlled by the development of combined rail/road traffic. With a view to developing the railways, the government will invest 20 billion Austrian Schillings in the transportation of goods and people. The transit agreement also provides for the expansion of railway stations handling combined traffic to neighbouring countries.
In connection with the problem of transit traffic, it is important to mention that the Rhine/Main/Danube canal will be opened in the autumn of 1992. It will give a major boost to river traffic, since it will link up the North Sea and the Black Sea.
The Waste Management Law, which came into force in July 1990, pursues three hierarchically related objectives:
1. The primary aim of this law is waste prevention through the development of production procedures which result in only a little or even no waste. The minimalisation of waste on the product level also contributes to the realisation of this goal.
2. Unavoidable waste should be collected seperately and utilised or reutilised through the development of recycling systems.
3. If no form of utilisation is possible, such waste may be deposited only after suitable treatment.
The Waste Management Law strives for the greatest possible domestic utilisation and treatment of waste. At the same time, an environmentally correct treatment of waste should be guaranteed. For this reason, the import and export of wastes of all kinds is subject to approval.
To realise the goals and principles of the Waste Management Law a federal Waste Managemant Plan is to be enacted. This plan comprises, in particular:
- an assessment of waste management as it now is,
- mesures for the reduction of the quantity and containment-load of the various wastes
- mesures for an environmentally sound, economically useful utilisation of wastes
- the regional distribution of required waste management plants in the federal provinces.
Demands for goal-setting and the implementation of mesures can be imposed on the basis of the Waste Management Law.
Examples are the obligation to take back collected waste and pollutant restriction on batteries and accumulators or the ordinance concerning the marking of certain lamps, their collection by the producer and a raising of the deposit.
Switzerland
Like Austria, Switzerland is both an alpine country and a country of transit. As it is not a member of the European Community, it has been able to impose very strict regulations for new vehicles. The catalytic converter, for example, is compulsory on petrol engine cars.
1991 saw the entry into force of the Federal Council's order on peatlands, which guarantees the protection of 514 peat land areas of national importance, covering a total surface area of 14,5 km삲, with an additional 37 km삲 of buffer zones. The legislation forbids any use - even as pastureland - of peatlands that have remained in tact and provides for the rehabilitation of those that have been damaged.
In 1991, the National Council passed a law encouraging Swiss farmers to give priority to organic farming, by means of investment credits and grants to farmers who undertake to respect naturalistic values.
Italy
The most serious environmental problems in Italy are soil erosion and inadequate physical planning.
A national inventory of open spaces was prepared by the Ministry of the Environment in 1991. This national register covers 476 protected areas with a total surface area of 2 million hectares, that is 6,8% of the national territory.
In 1989, an interministerial decree gave effect to the legislation enacted in November 1988 which imposes a tax on the producers of non-biodegradable plastic bags, amounting to 100 Lire (which represents several times the cost of manufacture) per bag placed on the market.
A scheme was introduced at the end of 1991 to combat the pollution caused by the heavy volume of traffic in certain towns. The scheme comprises several measures, including the limitation of traffic (alternate number plates, closing of certain streets ...), the obligation to use less polluting fuel, fiscal incentives to replace diesel vehicles by vehicles with catalytic converters, etc.
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom is the first country in Europe to have established a free market in electrical energy for industrial consumers.
The common carriage system enables industrial consumers to choose their electricity company. The government has also set up a new agency which controls the conditions of competition on this market.
There is no doubt that one of the first consequence of this new sytem has been an increase in the efficiency of the energy production. For example, the number of electro-thermal power stations has risen.
Nuclear power has a 20% share of the energy market. It is not planned to raise this share for the time being, but a study on nuclear energy prospects in 1994 will lay the groundwork for a decision on this subject.
It is interesting to note that sulphur dioxide emissions declined by 25% between 1980 and 1990.
The United Kingdom is a party to the Montreal Protocol. In this connection, it will donate 9,5 million pounds to help third world countries use alternative substances to CFCs.
The National River Authority (NRA), an independent agency, was set up specifically to control water pollution and to manage water resources.
As far as nature conservation is concerned, in 1989 the Ministry of the Environment developed a system of bonuses (premium countryside scheme) for farmers who leave their land fallow with a view to preserving the beauty of the landscape, saving endangered species or repairing damage caused by intensive farming or the use of certain pesticides.
Ireland
The Environment Action Programme published in January 1990 is the first comprehensive environment programme ever adopted by an Irish Government.
The Action Programme explicitly takes account of:
- the concept of sustainable development
- the principle of precautionary action in relation to environmental risk
- the integration of environmental considerations in all policy areas.
The Environmental Protection Agency was created to exercise environmental control over all activities with major polluting potential.
To intensify environmental awareness and information, the ENFO-Environmental Information Service opened in September 1990 in Dublin with acces to international environmental data basis such as INFOTERRA (the United Nations Environment Programme data base).
Priority during the recent years concerning the action for air quality has been given to combat the persistent problem of Dublin smog:
- Regulations banning the marketing of bituminous coal came into effect in the area of Dublin from September 1990.
- Active campains for conversion to gas and electrical home heating have lead to some 21,000 conversions to gas heating in Dublin in 1990.
The Environmental Action Programme committed up to £300 million over the next decade for the provision of new and improved water supply schemes to ensure compliance with strict EC drinking standards.
Some £230 million will be spent during this decade on inland sewage schemes.
Netherlands
According to the Netherland's National Environmental Policy Plan (NEPP), the environmental policy will be based on eight concepts:
- the "standstill" principle to ensure that environmental quality does not degrade any further
- the pollution abatement at the source
- the "polluter pays" principle
- the prevention of unnecessary pollution
- the application of the best practicable means of pollution abatement
- the application of the principles for isolating, controlling, and monitoring wastes
- the source-oriented controls based on effect-oriented quality standards
- the internalisation of environmental control into the activities of the target groups.
NEPP sets out 50 strategic objectives and 228 specific measures. Some of the most important include:
- the stabilisation of carbon dioxide emissions at 1989-90 levels by the year 2000
- the reduction of sulfur dioxide emissions from oil refineries by 62% and from industrial sources by 78 percent of 1985 levels
- the reduction of nitrogen oxide from oil refineries and industry by 54% of 1985 levels
- the introduction of environmental auditing
- the establishment of subsidies for energy conservation
- the establishment of systems for collecting, recycling, and reusing materials from waste products, such as old refrigerators, electrical appliances, and goods containing polyvinyl chloride
- a 75% reduction from 1986 levels of nitrogen oxide emissions from motor vehicles by 2000
- an increase in all motor vehicle fuel taxes
- substantial increases in expenditures on mass transit systems
- a 70% reduction from the 1980 levels of ammonia emissions by 2000
- 50% reduction in the total use of pesticides by 2000
- the establishment of separate systems for collecting used batteries, toxic wastes from households, cans, textiles, and paper by 2000
- the use of compost to break down 50% of all household organic wastes by 2000.
One major environmental problem faced by the Netherlands is the pollution of groundwater, particularly as a result of intensive farming. Intensive farming in the Netherlands has also caused the eutrophication of the soil, rivers and lakes.
In order to deal more effectively with this problem, the territory of the Netherlands has been divided into 37 "ecodistricts" based on geological and hydrological characteristics. One of the solutions adopted will be the use of new technologies for the treatment of liquid manure.
In the years to come, the NEPP aims to achieve two main objectives with regard to eutrophication; the first being a reduction in the level of industrialised cattle rearing and its effects on the soil and groundwater, and the second being the revitalisation of the ecosystem of the Rhine.
It is expected that the price of drinking water will double in the next ten to twenty years as a result of the measures that will have to be taken. The action plan for the Rhine involving the activities of all the countries crossed by the river provides for a 50% reduction in nitrogen and phosporus discharges by 1995.
Although the quantities discharged are now falling, additional measures will be needed in order to achieve the targets fixed for 2000. The measures already implemented will reduce the level of cadmium discharged into the Rhine by 85% and that of copper by 60%.
From 1995, the Netherlands will restrict trading in tropical timber to imports from countries which ensure proper management and conservation of their tropical rain forests.
Sweden
Sweden - like the other Scandinavian countries - is particularly attentive to environmental policy. The main reason is that Sweden is severely affected by air pollution emanating from the countries of Central Europe. Sweden has attempted to promote international conventions on air pollution. It succeeded in reducing its carbon dioxide emissions by 36% between 1975 and 1990.
This was to some extent facilitated by its geographical location which enables it to produce a large proportion of its primary energy requirements in hydro-electric power stations.
The government is attempting to meet the fixed targets with the aid of fiscal instruments adapted to the market economy. A fine of SKR 250 per tonne of carbon dioxide produced was introduced as of 1 January 1991. This measure was included in tax reforms which also introduced a tax on sulphur emissions as well as value-added tax on all energy sources (oil, coal, natural gas, electricity, etc.).
Sweden aims to abandon nuclear power by the year 2010, that is to say its last reactor should be decommissioned by that date.
The problems of domestic waste are being tackled with the aid of a system for the separation of packaging by individual households. A tax on packaging has been introduced in order to reduce waste levels.
Norway
The Norwegian Environment Minister has undertaken to halve the level of dangerous substances discharged into the North Sea by 1995. In this respect, major changes will have to be made to agricultural policy, particularly as regards the use of phosporus and nitrogen. According to the National Pollution Control Agency (STF), the expected reductions in these substances by the year 2010 do not exceed 10% and 15% respectively. Much stricter measures would be needed in order to achieve a reduction of 50%.
Moreover, the plan for the protection of the Norwegian coastline provides for six protected zones along the coast, extending from the Oslo Fjord in the south to Finnmark in the north, as well as restrictions on the number of trawlers, fish farms and other forms of activity.
Iceland
In 1989, parliament adopted a Bill introducing a deposit system for all drinks containers, whether glass, metal or plastic.
A deposit will be charged every time a drink is purchased and will be refunded upon return of the container to food stores or other sales points.
A private company runs the deposit system and is responsible for collecting and recycling the relevant containers. The system has been operational since summer 1990.
The Icelandic Ministry of the Environment was formally established in 1990 with the objective of improving co-ordination of national environmental policies and promoting Iceland's participation in the relevant international bodies.
Czechoslovakia
The environmental situation in Czechoslovakia is extremely serious. Czech forests are particularly badly affected by damage resulting from air pollution.
Over 50% of drinking water does not meet hygiene standards. Of the 700 000 tonnes of waste produced annually, only 20% are treated properly.
Since the sixties, life expectancy has fallen from 70 to 67 years.
Czechoslovakia is already a signatory to the Montreal Protocol. It also intends to sign and ratify the Basle Convention on hazardous wastes.
With regard to air pollution, one of the government's objectives is to achieve a 39% reduction in sulphur dioxide emissions over the period 1980-93.
Two ministerial bodies were set up in 1990:
- Ministry of the Environment in the Czech Republic
- Commission of the Environment in the Slovak Republic.
Scientific and technical assistance is provided by the regional offices of several environmental protection agencies.
The CSFR is involved in UNESCO's "MAB" (Man and the Biosphere) programme and in the EEC's "PHARE 91" programme.
Within the latter programme, the CSFR's activities are concentrated on:
- an analysis of the impact of pollution on the state of health of the population in the industrialised regions of Teplice and Novaky;
- the establishment of an awareness and education campaign for the general public;
- the harmonisation and reinforcement of water quality management and control methods.
In 1990 the new government conducted an inventory of the environmental situation and drew up environmental policy objectives for the future of the country's flora and fauna:
- the restoral of ecological balance in cultivated land;
- the stopping of the reduction in the number of species and the re-introduction of certain species in their natural habitat;
- the protection of landscapes and their genetic heritage.
Hungary
Hungary has 1021 protected areas covering a total of 588 222 hectares. This is over 6% of the country's territory.
Hungary's political and administrative structures have been altered in order to improve environmental protection. The new structures will be more federal and more regional.
The protected areas include:
- 5 national parks
- 44 landscape areas
- 120 natural habitat areas
- 800 natural habitat areas defined by the local authorities.
The objective is to abandon the idea that a "parks policy" is an adequate solution in itself and to establish a strategy for environmental protection covering the entire country.
Hungary is participating the EEC's "PHARE" programme which includes important projects for the environment and nature in East European countries.
The Hungarian parliament has also ratified the Ramsar Convention (on Wetlands).
Poland
Given the negligence of environmental protection for so many years and the limited availability of resources allocated by the state and the public to re-establish the situation, there is a need to define priorities concerning environmental goals.
The priorities in environmental protection are classified into short-, medium- and long-term priorities.
Some examples for these priorities:
1. Short-term priorities (1991-94):
- change of manufacturing in industrial plants emitting dangerous substances into the air, depositing toxic substances into waste waters, etc.
- implementation of the coal quality improvement programme (removal from sulpur-containing coal and rise in calorific value of pulverised energetic coal)
- reduction of deficits in quality of drinking water supplies for urban areas, mainly through the construction of sewage treatment plants situated along tributaries of rivers.
2. Medium-term priorities:
a. regarding air quality protection:
- reduction of SO2-emissions by 3O% as compared to the levels of 1980
- reduction of NOx-emissions by 1O%
- reduction of dust emissions by about 5O%
b. regarding the quality of water ressources:
- reduction of pollution loads disposed off by industry and
municipalities into the rivers by 5O% through the decrease in the
amount of untreated sewage.
3. Long-term priorities:
- restoration of environmental damages and the creation of a system preventing their repeated occurrence
- introduction of environmentally friendly, modernised manufacturing techniques throughout all production processes with support given to the implementation of clean technologies rather than to the construction of expensive "end of pipe"-cleaning equipment.
The Polish Government considers it most appropriate to draft one comprehensive act containing general principles and common standards for all forms of environmental protection. This refers to, for example, the Water Law, regulations concerning forests, the Hunting Law, the Mining Law, the Ecology Law and the Building Law.
The most important principles of this act will be:
- universality of environmental protection
- sustainable development
- perpetrator's responsibility
- active participation of citizens
- integrating environmental protection requirements in planning activities.
The following legal acts are presently under preparation:
- National Environmental Protection Law
- Water Law (new edition)
- Forestry and Forest Management Law
- Geological and Mining Law
- Hunting Law
- State Inspectorate of Environmental Protection Act.
Additional measures to these legal tools will be:
- economic instruments
- environmental education and research.
CONCLUSIONS
Despite its necessarily incomplete nature, this report leads the Rapporteur to draw two conclusions that are unlikely to be contradicted by more comprehensive data.
Notwithstanding the considerable efforts made in at least some countries, the first conclusion is that national environmental policies are not well enough developed to deal with the dangers facing our planet. It is therefore essential for our governments to step up their efforts in this field without, however, compromising economic development - although the latter nevertheless requires re-orientation.
The second conclusion is a corollary of the first: international conventions are often scarcely observed or not observed at all and countries very frequently neglect to include internationally accepted commitments in their national legislation and policies. Moreover, it is too often the case that conventions impose obligations that are inadequate for meeting the targets set. The most glaring example here is the Montreal Protocol on substances that deplete the ozone layer (concerning the reduction in the production and use of CFC's by the year 2000). In reality, the timetable and percentages fixed in the Protocol are inadequate for tackling the problem. Fortunately, some countries have taken the initiative of setting stricter deadlines and limits.
The environmental situation is extremely serious at both European and planetary level. We will soon have reached a stage where no further procrastination can be allowed if we wish to avoid irreversible damage which would threaten the very existence of future generations. Concrete decisions involving specific obligations for all governments must be taken as a matter of urgency.
In the light of these remarks, the Rapporteur is convinced that the draft European charter or convention on environmental protection and sustainable development proposed by the Parliamentary Assembly in Recommendation 1130 (1990) remains highly relevant today. Given the current situation, where it seems that pan-European co-operation should be integrated in the broader planetary context likely to result from the Rio Conference, this proposal appears to embody the natural choice of instrument for guaranteeing (in the manner of the Convention on Human Rights) present and future generations a healthy and sustainable environment.
Such a convention should give practical effect to the will of the Signatory States and, as such, should include all the procedures and instruments necessary for guaranteeing its comprehensive application and effective monitoring. To this end, it is essential to set up a body (a committee of national experts assisted by independent advisers) responsible for monitoring the implementation of the convention/charter by the Contracting Parties, while also making provisions for arbitration or even sanctions to be applied in the event of signatories breaching their commitments.
A committee of the same type should also be appointed by the Committee of Ministers to draft such an instrument.
The new geopolitical situation in Europe and the extremely serious environmental situation in the countries of Central and Eastern Europe mean that Western European nations and international organisations must implement co-operation projects designed to help these countries introduce not only a market economy, but also an economy based on environmentally conscious industrial activity and practices. While such co-operation will undoubtedly require great financial resources, the know-how, experience and skills of countries or organisations like the Council of Europe are of fundamental importance. Environmental protection is a daily exercise in democracy, responsibility, public-spiritedness, education and co-operation. The promotion of local democracy, the training of young people and co-operation programmes between towns, schools, universities and government authorities in our member States and those in the countries of the former communist bloc can only help serve the cause of the countries themselves and of our common heritage.
In our countries, it is also important to increase the attention paid to consumers and non-governmental organisations in general. A concerted European campaign employing a common product label to ensure that consumers are properly informed about the products on the market can only help defend consumers' legitimate rights and encourage producers to respect the standards required for obtaining the label.
With regard to incentives for producers, all possible fiscal measures should be encouraged. Such measures generally prove extremely effective in encouraging industrialists to invest in often highly expensive new equipment or to give up certain processes. In fact, experience has often shown that some companies prefer to pay any fines that may apply to pollution they cause rather than embark upon new investments about which they are often sceptical.
This last comment pinpoints one of the fundamental problems of the struggle to protect the environment: the need for complete awareness on the part of all persons involved. It is essential for governments to step up activities encouraging awareness of environmental problems. Moreover, such measures should go beyond school education. Our countries have a responsibility to make all citizens, whether elected representatives (of all levels), civil servants, industrialists, teachers or media professionals, fully aware of the problems involved. Only general awareness and collective action can help us actually achieve the objectives set in hundreds of meetings, conferences and adopted conclusions, it being an unfortunate fact that the associated results are usually extremely disappointing.
Reporting committee: Committee on the Environment, Regional Planning and Local Authorities.
Budgetary implications for the Assembly: None.
Reference to committee: Permanent mandate.
Draft recommendation: Unanimously adopted by the committee on 10 April 1992.
Members of the committee: MM. Cuatrecasas (Chairman), Ruffy, Lord Newall (Alternate: Lord Kinnoull) (Vice-Chairmen), MM. Adamowicz, Balligand, Benassi, Gudmundur Bjarnason, Mrs Blunck, MM. Bondevik, Büchel, Demiralp, Dimmer, Mrs Dromberg, MM. Efraimoglou, Eversdijk (Alternate: Eisma), Fahey, Feldmann (Alternate: Antretter), Frendo, Gonzalez Laxe, Mrs Graenitz, MM. Hardy, Hellström, Olof Johansson (Alternate: Mrs Ekman), Jung, Kobylka, Konstantopoulos, Lanner, Lotz, Meszaros, Monfils, Petitpierre, Pinto, Pistre, Reis Leite, Rubner (Alternate: Parisi), Mrs Sahligerova, Mr Sarens, Mrs Severinsen, MM. Slomka (Alternate: Smolarek), Talay, Sir Donald Thompson, Triglia, Tummers, Zierer.
N.B. The names of those who took part in the vote are underlined.
Secretaries of the committee: Mr Larcher and Mrs Cagnolati-Staveris.