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12 July 1993
Doc. 6898
1403-8/7/93-2-E
REPORT
on marine mammals
(Rapporteurs: Mr BÜHLER,
Germany, Group of the European People's Party
and Mr GUNNARSSON,
Iceland, Socialist Group)
Summary
In most oceans of the world marine mammals have been threatened with extinction or their populations have been seriously reduced due to over-exploitation through hunting and/or accidental by-catches in fishing gear. Ocean pollution has also had negative effects on several species. This situation led to a ban as from 1986 on the commercial hunting of whales, special protection of some other cetaceans within the framework of various international conservation conventions, and restrictions on seal-hunting. The hunting methods used in whaling and sealing have been heavily criticised and a consumer-boycott has affected the trade in seal skins. These developments have had dramatic consequences for hunters and hunting societies, notably loss of employment and income. Hunting societies have ceased to exist since there were no other economic alternatives. At present some mammal stocks have regenerated to pre-exploitation levels, some species experience a population explosion whereas others are still very vulnerable.
Much more research should be carried out in order to achieve a better understanding of marine ecosystems and their living resources — including marine mammals. There is also a need to better inform the public of these ecosystems and their importance for life on earth. A co-ordinated European action through the creation of a European Marine Agency would be a step in the right direction. Marine mammals are part of the living resources of ocean ecosystems. They should be protected when threatened and only hunted when there is certainty that the size of their stocks allows it. Hunting may also be necessary in order to avert over-population and imbalances in marine ecosystems. Regimes for the use of ocean resources must be improved and based on the principle of sustainability. Hunting methods should be humane in that no pain, stress or distress should be felt by the animal. The trapping of animals in fishing gear and the release of dangerous substances into ocean ecosystems must be stopped.
I. Draft resolution
1. The Assembly recalls its Resolutions 929 (1989), on the future of whaling and 972 (1991), on the future of ocean fisheries.
2. The Assembly is of the opinion that sustainable management policies for the multiple uses of ocean resources, including marine mammals, should be based on detailed knowledge and understanding of the marine ecosystems concerned.
3. The Assembly recognises the responsibility of the International Whaling Commission (IWC) for the conservation and management of whale stocks and the regulation of whaling, pursuant to the 1946 International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling, and it appreciates the work done by the IWC's Scientific Committee. The Assembly has duly taken note of the findings of the 45th annual meeting of the International Whaling Commission (Kyoto, Japan, 10-14 May 1993).
4. The Assembly welcomes the protection of small cetaceans in the Baltic and North Seas, agreed upon under the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (Bonn Convention), and welcomes the initiative taken recently to achieve a similar agreement on the conservation of small cetaceans in the Mediterranean and Black Seas. The Assembly also stresses the importance of the protection of marine mammals under the Council of Europe Convention for the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention), the United Nations Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), the Convention for the Protection of the Mediterranean Sea against Pollution (Barcelona Convention) and the 1992 Convention on the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic.
5. Against this background, the Assembly calls on the governments of the Council of Europe member states, other governments concerned and the European Community:
i. to develop and/or improve global and regional legal regimes for the protection and sustained management of all species of marine mammals (larger whales and smaller cetaceans, walruses and seals);
ii. to considerably increase their research programmes with a view to improving the knowledge and understanding of marine ecosystems and their vital function for the global environment and life on earth;
iii. to make sure that marine mammals are given adequate attention in such research programmes;
iv. to require that nations giving licenses to hunt marine mammals must also make sure that hunting methods meet standards of humane killing or meet them as close as possible. Research and development should facilitate that this objective be reached.
v. to ensure that adequate control mechanisms are provided for in the protection and exploitation agreements to prevent misbehaviour and violations.
6. Furthermore, the Assembly calls on the governments of Council of Europe member states and the European Community to set up a European Marine Agency (EMA) for the carrying out and co-ordination of research into marine ecosystems, the formulation of conservation and exploitation policies as well as the dissemination of information and knowledge.
II. Explanatory memorandum
by Mr BÜHLER and Mr GUNNARSSON
Contents
Page
Introduction 5
Sustainable management policies for the ocean's living resources 6
The management of common resources 7
Are there any large whales left? 8
The specific case of smaller cetaceans 9
Walruses and seals 10
Animal welfare 10
Is hunting a crime? 11
Some people depend on hunting 12
Conclusions 13
Appendix 14
Introduction
The Assembly in its Resolution 972 (1991) on the future of ocean fisheries invited the governments of member states, the European Community, OECD and other intergovernmental organisations concerned: "to work as a matter of grave urgency for the introduction of sustainable multiple species management policies for the exploitation and use of marine ecosystems and their living resources in general".
In an earlier Resolution 929 (1989) on the future of whaling, the Assembly expressed its concerns "that whale stocks be given sufficient attention — alongside fish and other living marine resources — as policies affecting the understanding, management and exploitation of marine resources are being shaped, particularly now that many countries are increasing their marine and offshore activities".
In April 1991, Mr Banks and others presented a motion for a resolution (Doc. 6428) calling for: "Japan, Norway and Iceland to cease forthwith their discredited programmes of so-called scientific whaling; a permanent and enforceable ban on the killing of whales for commercial, research or fisheries management purposes; complementary legislation within the European Community Common Fisheries Policy to achieve the above objectives; the extension of International Whaling Commission jurisdiction to small cetaceans namely dolphins, porpoises and pilot whales; a message of total opposition to any proposals to allow limited commercial whaling to be sent to the International Whaling Commission at its 1991 meeting in Iceland".
In the light of this motion and the two above-mentioned resolutions as well as the outcome of the hearing on the future of ocean fisheries (Aberdeen, 11 September 1990), the Sub-Committee on Fisheries came to the conclusion that a public hearing on marine mammals should be organised in preparation of a report to be presented to the Parliamentary Assembly. This hearing took place on 25 May 1992 in Reykjavik, hosted by the Icelandic authorities.
A detailed analysis of the situation with regard to cetaceans, ie whales (the largest species) and dolphins or porpoises (the smallest species) as well as walruses and seals was presented at the hearing. The former category comprises about eighty species of aquatic mammals — some feed on small aquatic organisms, others mainly on fish and squid. Many of the more abundant whales and porpoises have been commercially important. Their meat has been sold for consumption by humans and animals and their oil and fat has been used for industrial lubricants and for conversion into soaps and fatty acids which are used in cosmetics and detergents.
The walruses and seals, commonly called pinnipeds are strictly carnivorous and mostly marine. In reality, they are amphibious, being aquatic as to food habits but terrestrial for mating, bearing young and resting. Their diet consists mainly of fish, cuttle fishes, octopuses and crustaceans, and some seals can harm commercial fisheries and aquaculture installations. The seal has been of significant importance for the eskimos and other inhabitants of the north who used almost every part of the animal. Seals have also been hunted commercially for their oil and meat and for their hides that are used as leather.
Cetaceans, walruses and seals constitute an important part of many marine ecosystems. The hearing aimed at clarifying their role and interaction with each other, as well as with other living marine organisms. The hearing also raised the question of their exploitation, hunting methods and the size of their population — in particular with regard to their preservation and sustainable management. Two "poster sessions" were also organised to acquaint participants with some general features regarding marine mammals and their exploitation by man.
The present report aims at clarifying the required political action regarding the management of ocean ecosystems, in particular with regard to marine mammals. The compendium of hearing documents has been published separately.
Sustainable management policies for the ocean's living resources
A general consensus emerged from the hearing that ocean ecosystems must not be destroyed or seriously damaged through man's action. The use of oceans for the dumping of wastes and other pollutants should be stopped. The use of oceans for transport and the considerable off-shore activities related to mineral and oil exploitations as well as coastal activities in general must also adapt to environmental requirements. The oceans and their living resources have too great an importance for life on earth to be allowed to be put at risk.
The ecosystems of European waters are varied. The relative importance of different species, their interaction with each other, their competition for food and migration patterns, vary from ecosystem to ecosystem. However, marine mammals are more or less important in all of them. Strong emphasis on the protection of dolphins, seals, whales etc. due to the targeted over-exploitation and/or adverse effects of harvesting methods (for example clubbing of seal pups) or accidental catches (trapping of dolphins in driftnets and other fishing gear) have resulted in a stronger public call for their protection and to a ban on the hunting of several of these species in most waters.
Marine mammals are part of the ocean ecosystem. However, as fish, game and other living resources, they must be subject to a sustained husbandry. Threatened populations must be protected and when populations are in a healthy condition they can be subjected to a reasonable taxation. This will secure resources for man and will avoid the negative consequences of over-population of certain species.
The hearing on marine mammals — as well as the hearing on the future of ocean fisheries which took place in Aberdeen (United Kingdom) on 11 September 1990 bore witness to lack of sufficient knowledge in respect of ocean ecosystems. It is urgent to increase and co-ordinate research efforts in this area. The study of marine mammals should be fully integrated in this new research effort and should be given greater relative importance. Only the possession of adequate knowledge can allow for the establishment of sustainable resources management policies. The study of the adverse effects of pollution must be an important part of a European research effort on ocean ecosystems. A comprehensive sustainable management regime cannot be drawn up on the basis of the present state of knowledge on these ecosystems. The increase in off-shore and coastal activities, together with increased sea transport and the discharge of wastes into the seas, make a comprehensive assessment of the consequences of these activities for the health of ocean ecosystems necessary. The 1992 Convention on the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic (which replaces the Oslo and Paris Conventions on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by dumping from ships and aircrafts and the prevention of marine pollution from land based sources) also includes provisions on the prevention and elimination of off-shore pollution and the assessment of marine environmental quality. It is your Rapporteurs' opinion that in order to fulfil such international obligations and to devise a meaningful ocean management policy, much more research is needed on the complex nature of ocean ecosystems and on the multiple factors influencing them. The equipment and technology used for the multiple exploitation of living and non-living ocean resources can also be improved — in particular for the avoidance of any adverse effects: fishing methods can be made more selective, ship safety can be improved and off-shore equipment could be given higher environmental standards, etc.
Ideally, an ocean management system should be ecosystem oriented which means that it should include in its management regime all living resources of the oceans and take account of their inter-relationship. Needless to restate that far more research is needed in order to build such management models.
It is beyond the scope of this report to go into any further detail regarding the vast field of ocean and related research and development. The two hearings referred to above and the debate within the Sub-Committee on Fisheries have clearly illustrated that Europe needs to co-ordinate the various research and development projects related to oceans and their multiple uses and exploitation. It is high time that a European marine agency be created for this purpose, but also for that of disseminating knowledge on ocean ecosystems, their many functions and the consequences of their multiple uses for their present condition.
The management of common resources
By far the most important development regarding the management of the oceans in recent years was the adoption of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea in 1982. While not yet in force, its provisions have had a normative effect on developments in all areas of marine affairs. As far as the utilisation of living resources is concerned the fundamental principle is the recognition of the sovereign rights of coastal states within their 200-mile Exclusive Economic Zones. However, the convention includes a plea for increased international co-operation for ocean resources management.
Many species of marine mammals are migratory species, which penetrate the waters of many coastal states, and also live in international waters. This situation demands international agreements on their management. The International Whaling Commission has been set up to manage larger species of cetaceans, whereas only some of the smaller species are covered by other agreements to guarantee their protection and sustained use. The existing legal framework seems however not sufficiently strong to effectively protect some of these species. An efficient international control mechanism for the protection and exploitation of cetaceans should be included in existing agreements or be the subject of new ones. Walruses and seals are also suffering from the weakness of international agreements on their protection and sustained exploitation. Many pinnipeds have reached a situation of over-population which is harmful for the species themselves as well as for the equilibrium of the marine ecosystem they live in. The only example of international cooperation for the protection and sustained exploitation of all marine mammals, mentioned during the hearing, was the newly created North Atlantic Marine Mammal Commission (NAMMCO) created on 9 April 1992 by the Faroe Islands, Iceland, Greenland and Norway.
The responsibility of the International Whaling Commission for the conservation and management of whale stocks and the regulation of whaling pursuant to the 1946 International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling, was clearly recognised at the hearing. The work of its Scientific Committee for the study of whales as well as other cetaceans was praised by the meeting. It is your Rapporteurs' opinion that this work should be strengthened and should be increasingly used in guiding the IWC in its management decisions regarding different whale stocks (protection, catch limits, etc.).
Since the hearing took place Iceland decided to leave the IWC and the Faroe Islands, Greenland and Norway have been reconsidering their relations with the organisation.
Are there any large whales left?
The over-exploitation of baleen whales in the early 1930s led to a catastrophic drop in the price of baleen oil. The industry then tried to stabilise the market through different agreements on catch limits. This work was interrupted by the second world war which set a stop to whaling. The war, however, caused a world shortage in the supply of fats which led several nations to look with interest at pelagic whaling. Discussions on the regulation of whaling were held in London in 1945 and in Washington in 1946. At the 1946 conference the International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling was signed. Membership was open to all nations, whaling and non-whaling alike. Its expressed purpose was "to provide for the proper conservation of whale stocks and thus make possible the orderly development of the whaling industry". The convention established the International Whaling Commission for the purpose of fixing catch limits and hunting rules. Its decisions should be based on scientific advice from a scientific committee.
Due to the serious deterioration of several whale stocks during the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s, and an inadequate scientific basis for management, the IWC voted in 1982 a moratorium on commercial whaling to take effect in 1986. This moratorium made exceptions for aboriginal catches and scientific catches. The moratorium is still in force but Iceland (no longer a member of IWC), Norway and Russia (having objected to this decision) are not bound by it. Norway has decided to resume the hunting of minke whales from 1993.
During the same period, the IWC's Scientific Committee worked with different management procedures trying to satisfy the principle of conservation as well as the idea of "making possible the orderly development of the whaling industry". The latest of these management regimes for multiple stock management was adopted by the IWC Scientific Committee in 1992 and is referred to as the Revised Management Procedure. The Revised Management Procedure has been designed to allow catches only when these would not endanger the stock in question. It takes specific note of the level of information that is available for each whale stock; if little is known about the stock, the proposed catch limit will be small or zero. When the IWC decided on a moratorium for commercial whaling it was stated that "this provision will be kept under review, based upon the best scientific advice, and by 1990 at the latest the Commission will undertake a comprehensive assessment of the effects of this decision on whale stocks and consider modification of the provision and the establishment of other catch limits". This comprehensive assessment has never been carried out although important progress has been made. The IWC's Scientific Committee has made an assessment of different whale populations which is reproduced in Appendix I. The numbers of some cetaceans are fairly well-known whereas others are very uncertain or not known at all. This is particularly the case for small cetaceans.
The minke whale population in the Central North Atlantic (around Iceland) was in 1987-89 some 28 000 and in the north-eastern Atlantic (Norwegian waters) approximately 87 000. The fin whale stock in Icelandic waters consisted of some 15 000 animals. These stocks are estimated to increase between 2% and 4% annually which approximates an increase of some 300 animals for the minke whale stock around Iceland and some 2 000 animals for the minke whale stock observed in Norwegian waters. Other stocks such as the blue whale in the Antarctic has been reduced to less than 5% (7-8 000 animals) of its original population level. The right whale, which had been depleted by earlier sail boat whaling, is probably the most endangered species of whale.
The hearing showed that no species of larger whale was now threatened by any whaling which was likely to be applied in the future under the IWC's Revised Management Procedure. It is however necessary to apply conservative policies and at the same time increase research for the assessment of stocks, their inter-relationship and behaviour in the ecosystem. Scientists know very little about these big mammals, their reproduction, eating habits etc. It has been calculated that if the minke whale population off the coast of northern Norway ate only herring (one of its main prey) for one of the months it feeds in this area, it would consume 220 000 tons which is equal to three times the catch of Norwegian fishermen in this area in the same period (1989 data).
The specific case of smaller cetaceans
The term "small cetacean" is mostly taken to mean animals smaller than ten metres long even though many of them are called whales. Public opinion has sharply reacted to the by-catch of dolphins in tuna and scallop fisheries using large so-called "diftnets", up to sixty kilometres long and fifteen metres deep or Purse-seines. A Canadian experimental driftnet fishery in 1987 reported that forty-four marine mammals and 112 sea birds had been trapped after only forty-nine days. This worked out to an average of one marine mammal and more than two seabirds every thirty kilometres of net per day. The minimum mortality to marine mammals from these by-catches have been estimated to be as high as an annual take of 500 000 dolphins, porpoises and small whales. 8% of the mammals caught in tuna fisheries are reported to be very young or juvenile.
Your Rapporteurs give their full support to the ban on all large-scale pelagic driftnet fishing as has been voted by the General Assembly of the United Nations. This example clearly illustrates the irresponsible way in which fishermen of some nations have contributed to deplete populations of marine mammals. The philosophy in this case is the opposite of sustainable management. The example also illustrates the poor protection of small cetaceans. They are however covered by the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (Bonn Convention), the Council of Europe Convention for the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention) and the United Nations Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). This is clearly not enough and new political initiatives must be taken to improve the protection of these stocks. A most urgent task is to increase our knowledge and understanding of small cetaceans, the size of stocks and their role in the marine ecosystem. Your Rapporteurs welcome the initiative taken under the previously mentioned Bern and Bonn Conventions and the Convention for the Protection of the Mediterranean Sea against Pollution (Barcelona Convention) to launch an action plan for the conservation of cetaceans in the Mediterranean Sea and to draw up an agreement on the conservation of small cetaceans of the Mediterranean and the Black Seas and contiguous waters.
Walruses and seals
At the Reykjavik hearing it was disclosed that the harbour seal population in the United Kingdom was 25 000 animals and the grey seal population 90 000 animals. These stocks increase by as much as 7% annually. The grey seal population in Canadian waters around Newfoundland, some 100 000 animals, increases by 12% annually. The most common seal in northern waters was the ring seal which could be counted in millions. Another important species was the harp seal which could be found in the northern part of the North Atlantic. Currently, none of these seal stocks seem to be threatened. However, the Mediterranean monk seal (500-1 000 animals) and some small stocks in the Baltic Sea might be seriously threatened mainly because of local pollution.
The committee's hearing on the future of ocean fisheries (Aberdeen, 1990) was informed that the seal population of Newfoundland had reached 4,5 million. Considering that each seal consumes an average of one ton of fish per year and kills a considerable additional quantity which it does not eat, it becomes clear that these seals can also be a threat to fish stocks. As a matter of fact, they consume a quantity of fish more than 200 times larger than that caught by Newfoundland fishermen in 1990. An important factor for the increase in the major seal stocks has been the cessation of seal hunting as a result of a public boycott of products made from seal skin.
Animal welfare
Killing methods, used in the hunt of marine mammals, must be adapted as far as possible to the requirements of so called humane killing, meaning that the animal is immediately made unconscious and then killed or exsanguinated (bled out) without regaining consciousness. Unnecessary suffering of the animals must be avoided (this is, of course, equally relevant for animals kept for farming purposes).
At the hearing it was disclosed that several traditional hunting techniques including the pilot whale hunt in the Faroe Islands and the clubbing of seals, when correctly practised, were quite humane or close to ritual slaughter techniques, causing death within seconds. However, it became also clear that there was considerable scope for improvement. It seems necessary to require that nations, allowing the hunt of marine mammals, make sure that hunting methods are improved, wherever needed, to meet the highest standards.
Reports from the Norwegian scientific catch of minke whales in 1992 indicate that the hunt had not been as humane as it should have been. Of the ninety-five minkes harpooned, 50% died instantaneously, 42% within ten minutes and 8% took more than ten minutes to die. In some cases, whales were fired upon from outside the maximum recommended distance of thirty metres. Of 151 harpoon shots, only ninety-five hit their targets, and misfires were also noted.
It is part of animal welfare policy to provide animals a sound habitat. The pollution of the oceans is not only a nuisance to marine mammals but is an important mortality factor. An often ignored type of pollution is plastic bags which can be eaten by cetaceans and cause their death by blocking their bowels. Other types of pollutants, such as organo-chlorines, pesticides and heavy metals, however are far more dangerous from a population perspective. Some of these substances have been found in alarmingly high concentrations in the tissue of many species. They may cause skin diseases, and they are suspected of weakening the immune system. It is believed that this was at the origin of the epidemic that depleted the Mediterranean population of striped dolphins two years ago. There is also some evidence suggesting that pollutants can affect the reproductive ability of marine mammals. A strong correlation has been found between increasing numbers of sterile females, abortions and a high concentration of organo-chlorines. Pollution could eliminate both dolphins, porpoises and small whales for ever.
Is hunting a crime?
The hunting of deer and other game has always been practised by man. The hunting of whales and seals has been of fundamental importance for the subsistence of many societies in the Arctic regions.
The unfortunate over-exploitation of many of these resources in commercial hunts must serve as a lesson when elaborating future hunting regimes for these animals. The Agenda 21 document from the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (Rio de Janeiro, June 1992) sets out the general principle of sustainable use of all living marine resources. The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (1982) recognises the sovereign rights of coastal states within their 200-mile Exclusive Economic Zones and sets out the objective of optimum utilisation of the living resources in this zone. Article 65 of this convention reads as follows: "nothing in this part restricts the right of a coastal state or the competence of an international organisation, as appropriate, to prohibit, limit or regulate the exploitation of marine mammals more strictly than provided for in this part. States shall co-operate with a view to the conservation of marine mammals and in the case of cetaceans shall in particular work through the appropriate international organisations for their conservation, management and study".
The opposition to hunting is partly based on the interest to preserve wild species of animals but also partly related to the perceived cruelty of the hunting methods used. The first concern has been answered in this report by advocating the principle of the sustainable use of resources. The second has been answered above, but hunters should receive appropriate training and hunting methods should be improved wherever possible to comply with the principle of humane killing.
It has also been argued that whales and other cetaceans should not be hunted at all because of their uniqueness. However, all things in nature are unique, and it seems difficult to argue that one species is more unique than another and should therefore receive special treatment.
Some people depend on hunting
A large proportion of the peoples of the scarcely populated Arctic region is dependant on renewable natural resources such as fish, sea mammals, reindeer, plants, birds and other wildlife forms for their livelihood. Aboriginal or subsistence hunting is still carried out by Alaskan eskimos, Greenlanders and the natives of Chukoika in Russia. Many of these resources vary greatly between seasons and from one year to the next, and the population must therefore have access to several resources in order to make a living. Most of the hunting societies in the north are still performing hunting primarily to meet subsistence needs.
Present-day hunting communities need a number of important goods to maintain their activity such as rifles, ammunition, lines, boats, motors, oil, petrol etc. A cash income derived from the trading of hunting products or from family members having permanent or temporary wage-earning employment is therefore necessary. These economically and politically marginal societies are very sensitive to decisions (most of which are taken without their involvement), affecting their resource base.
The high and unregulated catches of harp and hooded seals at their breeding places in Newfoundland in the 1950s and 1960s resulted in a sharp decline in catches in Greenland. The introduction in the early 1970s of quota regulations and other restrictive measures almost halving the commercial catch levels elsewhere resulted in a significant increase of hunting in Greenland. The campaign against this hunting and the seal industry in general launched by various groups, including the boycott of seal skins, led to a sharp drop in seal skin prices, particularly for skins of the hair seals which had been the backbone of the economy for Greenland hunters. In the early 1970s a good seal hunter, by selling surplus skins, was a relatively wealthy man. Today a good hunter could not survive on hunting alone. Prices for seal skins have dropped from 200 Danish crowns in the mid-1970s to less than 50 Danish crowns in the mid-1980s. In the same period the price of fuel, an important input factor, increased five times.
The concerns of international organisations and nature conservation movements are well-founded. Ecosystems are evidently at risk all over the world. The history of commercial whaling and sealing offers excellent examples of the bad management of natural resources. It is therefore understandable that this experience has led to severe restrictions on or even the banning of commercial exploitation of whales and seals. It is however immoral to impose such restrictions upon communities which for centuries have practised subsistence harvesting and where the principle of ecological balance has been embedded in the cultural traditions and hunting rules.
The establishment of future local and regional harvesting regimes must be built on the principle of sustainable management which has always guided the attitude of communities which practice subsistence hunting by safeguarding their resources for future use. However, commercial exploitation has focused until the present decade on maximising the yield of a given resource. The aim of all policy must be to improve the quality of human life while living within the caring capacity of supporting ecosystems. In order to establish viable regimes for the utilisation of renewable resources in the north it is important that the local communities — which depend on these resources for their livelihood — be adequately involved. Their experience could prove most valuable in improving the management regimes for all threatened species of whales and seals.
Conclusions
Marine mammals constitute an important part of the ecosystem and as other ocean resources they may be exploited by man. Their hunt must imperatively be regulated and controlled by a sustainable resources management regime. Depleted or threatened stocks must be protected and allowed to regain a healthy size.
Threats to marine mammals stemming from pollution or the use of unselective fishing methods must be eliminated. Improvements should also be implemented with regard to hunting methods and hunting equipment to ensure that animals are humanely killed.
Societies dependant on hunting for their survival and for the preservation of their culture should be given special consideration when establishing any management regime.
It is fundamental for the design of any policy for the multiple use of the seas and the exploitation of their living and other resources that a better knowledge of all components of the ocean ecosystem be acquired. This is a multidisciplinary undertaking and could be carried out most effectively by a small co-ordinating European Marine Agency (EMA). Among the tasks of such an agency should be the dissemination of information on all aspects of ocean life and their vital role for our planet's survival.
APPENDIX
Whale population assessments
Because of the considerable scientific uncertainty over the numbers of whales of different species and in different geographical stocks the International Whaling Commission decided in 1989 that it would be better not to give whale population figures except for those species/stocks which have been assessed in detail, and for which there is statistical certainty with respect to the numbers.
So far the IWC Scientific Committee has carried out detailed assessments of eight groups of whales — minke whales in the southern hemisphere. North Atlantic and western North Pacific, fin whales in the North Atlantic, bowhead whales in the Western Arctic, and gray whales in the eastern North Pacific. We are therefore prepared to give the following figures for our best estimates of the present abundance of these whales (rounded to the third significant figure of the upper confidence limit).
MINKE WHALES Year Population 95% confidence
size interval
Southern hemisphere (Areas shown in Fig. 1)
Area I (120°W-60°W) 1982-83 73 000 45 000-120 000
Area II (60°W-0°) 1986-87 122 000 84 000-177 000
Area III (0°-70°E) 1987-88 89 000 52 000-150 000
Area IV (70°E-130°E) 1988-89 75 000 45 000-123 000
Area V (130°E-170°W) 1985-86 295 000 225 000-386 000
Area VI (170°W-120°W) 1983-84 107 000 63 000-182 000
North Atlantic
1987-89
North-eastern 87 000 61 000-117 000
Central 28 000 21 600- 31 400
West Greenland 3 270 1 790- 5 950
In the absence of an estimate for the Canadian East Coast stock area, an estimate for the entire North Atlantic cannot be calculated.
North Pacific
1989-90
Northwest Pacific (north of 39°N, west of 170°E) 5 800 2 800- 12 000
Okhotsk Sea 19 200 10 000- 36 600
FIN WHALES Year Population 95% confidence
size interval
North Atlantic (Blocks shown in Fig. 3)
Nova Scotia (Newfoundland/Labrador (1969) 10 800 5,390-21 700
West Greenland 1 100 560- 2 130
East Greenland/Iceland:A 4 330 2 310- 8 110
East Greenland/Iceland:B (1989) 5 280 3 800- 7 320
East Greenland/Iceland:B (1987) 3 890 2 510- 6 030
Average of preceding two estimates, B 4 590 3 520- 5 980
East Greenland/Iceland:C&D 7 400 3 300- 16 400
East Greenland/Iceland:A+B(1989)+C&D 1 260 500- 3 160
North Norway (1988) 1 040 460- 2 340
North Norway (1989) 1 910 910- 2 340
Average of preceding two estimates 1 480 850- 2 580
West Norway 340 80- 1 350
Faroes & Hebrides & Ireland (1987) 650 290- 1 470
Faroes & Hebrides & Ireland (1989) 700 240- 2 030
Average of preceding two estimates 680 340- 1 330
Iberia 17 300 10 400-28 900
SEI WALES
Central North Atlantic 1989 10 300 6 100-17 700
GRAY WHALES (1987/88)
(eastern North Pacific) 1987-88 21 000 19 800-22 500
Assuming a constant rate of increase, the population was increasing at a rate of 3,2% (95% confidence interval 2,4-1,3%) over the period 1967/68-1987/88 with an average annual catch of 174 whales.
BOWHEAD WHALES
Bering-Chukchi
Beaufort Seas stock 1988 7 500 6 400- 9 200
In addition to these species/stocks, and although they have not yet been the subject of Comprehensive Assessment Programme, we would be fairly confident in giving the following stock size estimate:
HUMPBACK WHALES
Western North Atlantic 1979-86 5 500 8 120- 2 890
A rate of population increase of 10,3% (95% confidence interval 2-23%) was obtained from the Gulf of Maine.
PILOT WHALES
Central & Eastern
North Atlantic 1989 780 000 440 000-1 370 000
September 1992
Map to be printed
Reporting committee: Committee on Agriculture.
Budgetary implications for the Assembly: none.
Reference to committee: Doc. 6428 and Reference No. 1733 of 28 June 1991.
Draft resolution adopted by the committee on 28 June 1993.
Members of the committee: Mrs Gjørv (Chairperson), MM. van der Linden, Sipos (Vice-Chairmen), Anthopoulos, Mrs Anttila, MM. Bühler, de Carolis (Alternate: Ferrari), Couveinhes (Alternate: Le Jeune), Crowley, Goerens, Gonzalez Laxe, Granstedt, Gunnarsson, Hansen, Howell, Jeambrun, Kiratlioglu, Lanner, Lord Mackie of Benshie, MM. Mannino, Michels, Ottenbourg, Pirinski, Pizzo, Rodrigues, Roger, Scheer, Seiler (Alternate: Berger), Smolarek, Jack Thompson (Alternate: Alexander), Vella.
N.B. The names of those members who took part in the vote are printed in italics.
Secretary to the committee: Mr Lervik.