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10 June 1994
Doc. 7101
1403-8/6/94-1-E
REPORT
on gender equality in education
(Rapporteur: Mrs ROBERT, Switzerland
Liberal, Democratic and Reformers Group)
Summary
Equality of women and men is a fundamental human right, an essential element of democracy and an imperative of social justice. However, in present-day societies inequalities between women and men persist de jure and de facto, in the educational field as in the political, economic, social, cultural and any other fields.
In the educational field, both sexes still continue to focus on traditional gender roles which strongly steer and reduce their choices of education, occupation and life concepts, thus reinforcing the male norms in society, the unequal power relationship of the sexes, the sex-segregation of the labour market, the sex-specific allocation of family responsibilities, the violence against girls and women.
Male concepts of gender and ethnic inequality and male acts of violence suggest that the equalisation process in numerous countries of Europe is stagnating or even in danger of reversing.
Bearing in mind that the principles of "parity" and pluralist democracy should be respected as the basis of individual identity and integrity and human rights and that human resources will be the most important factor in future structural change and development, the report suggests an integration of both the gender dimension and the cross-cultural dimension in education as norms actively promoted with a gender-sensitive approach.
Gender and cross-cultural equality in education should be recognised as aims not easily achieved. A series of measures are proposed in the fields of education, legislation, information, research and international co-operation.
I. Draft recommendation
1. The Assembly reaffirms its commitment to the promotion of equality between women and men for the purpose of developing fundamental human rights reflected in the United Nations' Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, the European Social Charter and the United Nations Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination against Women.
2. It acknowledges the considerable action by the Council of Europe on gender equality, inter alia the work of the Council for Cultural Co-operation, of the Standing Conference of European Ministers of Education (11th session in 1979 and 14th session in 1985) and of the Steering Committee for Equality between Women and Men on participation of women in public and political life as well as on sex stereotyping in the mass media and the Declaration on Policies for Combating Violence against Women in a Democratic Europe adopted by the 3rd European Ministerial Conference on equality between women and men.
3. The Assembly reasserts the importance of gender equality in education and considers it a matter of concern that:
i. co-education has led to more equality but also seems to favour hidden forms of discrimination of girls and women;
ii. traditional gender roles in education still strongly steer and reduce the choices of both sexes as regards education, occupation and lifestyles, thus reinforcing the male norms in society, the unequal power relationship of the sexes, sex-segregation of the labour market and the sex-specific allocation of family responsibilities;
iii. in numerous countries there is sexual harassment and male violence, racism and xenophobia, in education and society, afflicting especially girls and women.
4. The Assembly believes that gender equality, as a fundamental human right and an essential element of a "parity" and pluralist democracy, should be guaranteed by the educational systems of all states party to the European Cultural Convention.
5. Girls and boys, women and men should have de jure and de facto freedom of access to and freedom of choice in education including initial and further education, vocational training and adult education. Education should help them to develop their full potential, to preserve their personal integrity, to aim at economic independence and to participate fully in society and in political life.
6. The Assembly believes in the need to present girls and boys with positive role models of women of the past and present as a valid educational concept for removing stereotypes. Women as principals and decision-makers within a gender-balanced educational workforce can also be considered as important role-models.
7. It recognises the impact that childbearing and motherhood have on women's activities and considers the knowledge of it as a valid educational concept for girls and boys as well as the sharing of responsibilities for children and household work.
8. The Assembly believes that gender equality in education can only be achieved by meeting the needs of employed women, especially those working in the educational fields, by counteracting the existing discriminations. The educational authorities of the member states should do all they can to achieve fixed and regular school timetables and provide mothers, in particular those working in the educational fields, with support such as child-oriented timetabling and provisions for child care.
9. Gender equality in education must be part of an overall strategy for a more egalitarian and democratic society, considering that:
i. all educational issues are related to society and shape society, especially the society of tomorrow;
ii. girls and women have specific educational needs, especially with regard to their lifestyles, health situation and experience of discrimination, harassment and violence;
iii. it is necessary to improve and change the image and position of women in education and society;
iv. women of the past and present have contributed eminently to European culture and society and it is necessary to incorporate into education the knowledge the feminists have gathered on their contribution.
10. The Assembly acknowledges the significant contribution of the women's movement and feminist researchers and activists to human rights and gender equality in the educational field as well as in the political, social, cultural and economic fields and appreciates the expertise gathered in analysing and counteracting sexism and racism.
11. It believes that democracy can only be taught in schools in a democratic setting with respect for the cultural plurality in Europe and for the equality and dignity of the individual girl or boy, woman or man:
i. where gender equality as a norm is actively promoted;
ii. where gender differences are accepted and the different viewpoints and experience of women and men are appreciated in a gender sensitive way;
iii. where there is awareness and acceptance of the ethnic and cultural differences of girls and boys, women and men and their different viewpoints and experiences.
12. The Assembly, therefore, recommends that the Committee of Ministers ask the competent authorities of member states to promote education in human rights with a gender sensitive approach and to take measures to accelerate de jure and de facto equality in education, promoting actively equal rights, equal chances, equal treatment in a gender sensitive way to girls and boys, women and men, being students or belonging to the workforce in education, and in particular to:
i. guarantee freedom of access and freedom of choice in education for girls and boys, women and men, including initial and further education, vocational training and adult education;
ii. condemn and eradicate physical and verbal sexual harassment and violence;
iii. promote equal opportunities for women and especially mothers in the work place;
iv. promote equal participation of women in the decision-making processes;
v. continue efforts to improve research sensitive to gender and cultural origin;
vi. improve public awareness of the impacts of and obstacles to gender equality in school.
13. It is important that the Committee of Ministers urges the educational authorities of member states to do all they can to provide a proper basis for a gender sensitive approach in education in all areas within their control, and especially through:
i. revision of curricula, syllabi, textbooks and teaching material, inter alia by integrating gender sensitive expertise on girls and women's everyday life, life concepts, health demands and child-minding and the care of elderly and sick people;
ii. reinforcement of non-discriminatory language in school;
iii. revision of teaching methods aiming at non-sexist teaching;
iv. improvement of educational interactions aiming at equality and non-violence;
v. improvement of choices of segregation especially in mathematics, science and technology as a way of providing girls with career education and giving them more confidence and boys more gender awareness;
vi. revision of female stereotypes and role models for girls, aiming at improving their self-images and providing them with positive role models;
vii. revision of history teaching so as to present the importance of women for European history and culture, to propose them as positive role models for girls and boys and to explain the reasons for inequalities;
viii. revision of male stereotypes and role models for boys, counteracting concepts of inequality and violence and aiming at positive non-aggressive and family-oriented role models;
ix. revision of health education, considering the needs of girls and women;
x. revision and broadening of sexual and family planning education;
xi. revision and broadening of parenthood education;
xii. revision of media education aiming at non-sexist, non-racist and non-violent teaching, counter-acting verbal and visual violence against girls and women;
xiii. improvement of gender balance of teaching and administrative staff and school management;
xiv. improvement of communications between schools and parents especially for migrant girls, for whom school is the most important social point of reference and sometimes the only context in which their parents allow them to enter into social relationships;
xv. improvement of guidance and counselling, including the training of vocational advisors, of girls and boys, especially migrant girls;
xvi. revision of initial and in-service teacher training, preparing teachers for teaching in a gender sensitive way in an egalitarian and pluralist democracy;
xvii. improvement of support services for working parents and especially mothers such as child-oriented time-scheduling and child-care.
14. The Assembly further recommends that the Committee of Ministers:
i. place special emphasis on activities in the field of monitoring and provide in due course information on gender equality in education within the area of the European Cultural Convention;
ii. initiate or intensify gender sensitive research;
iii. expand international consultation and exchange of experiences with regard to legislation, educational programmes, studies or debates on topical problems;
iv. encourage participation of feminist and migrant researchers and expand the incorporation of feminist expertise;
v. expand the participation of women's organisations;
vi. initiate exchange programmes for teachers, students and researchers, and for possibilities of training and research;
vii. instruct the newly established European Commission against Racism and Intolerance to consider the equality dimension in its work;
viii. re-establish the former joint working party of the Steering Committee for Equality between Women and Men and the Council for Cultural Co-operation to study the effects of co-education and to organise subsequently an international policy-making conference.
II. Explanatory memorandum
by Mrs ROBERT
Introduction
1. The achievement of equality between girls and boys, women and men, of all cultural and ethnic origins, is crucial to the very functioning of democracy, its development and the realisation of human rights. Education plays a very basic role in this work. Formal equality as a norm which is actively promoted has therefore to be considered as one of the essentials of equality in education in general and gender and cross-cultural equality in particular.
2. The denial of education to girls and women contributed to the construction of their inequality (Spender/Sarah 1988). Equality of sexes in education has therefore to be understood as a cultural process of historic dimensions. Education was and is a means for women to achieve equality and knowledge, a means to vocational development, a way to economic independence. To combine marriage and outside employment was historically a new concept in the lives of European women that has replaced the previous centrality of marital and motherhood roles.
3. Education cannot be held responsible solely for the reproduction of sexual, cultural and ethnic divisions in society. But the field of education is a major socialising agent.
4. The international women's movement and feminist research have analysed women's way to gender equality in education, the positive impacts and the still existing obstacles, the open discrimination and the hidden sexism. Feminist research has shown that theories of socialisation cannot be equally applied to men and women, that there is a need to study the development of girls and women in their own right, from a different perspective, as equal, but with different concepts, different needs, different competences etc. The same applies to health and sexuality and the question of the personal integrity and dignity of girls and women.
5. The sexual division in society, the unequal power relationship of the sexes, the sex-segregated labour market, the sex-specific allocation of the responsibilites for children and household, sexual harrassment and violence against girls and women obviously discriminate against girls and women.
6. Research on gender inequality (OECD 1993a:75) has shown that inequality in a less obvious way is created by complicated processes involving a complex set of conditions which only in a metaphorical sense can be considered to discriminate against girls and women. These conditions are created by the male norms in society and thus in education. The lack of knowledge, awareness and acceptance of the reality of girls and women, their different needs and competences, leads to sex stereotyping and other hidden forms of discrimination (sexist curricula and syllabi, textbooks, teaching materials, sexist language and interactions, sex-stereotyped guidance and counselling), to gender imbalance in school employment, management, inspectorates, insufficient consideration of women's working conditions and health situation in the field of education and their need of improved compatibility between work and family responsibilities (OECD 1993b:9).
7. Girls and boys, women and men, of different cultural and ethnic origin who belong to ethnic minorities or are migrants or refugees, on the other hand, are disadvantaged in education because of their cultural and ethnic background; migrant girls in a double way, as girls and as immigrants. Teachers mostly lack the knowledge of how to overcome in a cross-cultural way sexist and ethnic discrimination and harrassment and how to support girls and especially migrant girls from Islamic countries in choosing their education or occupation.
8. Co-education has led to more equality but also to gender and cross-cultural inequality through hidden forms of discrimination, even if equality as a norm is actively promoted (OECD 1993a). Inequality is not a problem of formal equality alone and it is not a problem for girls and women alone. It concerns both sexes in gender-specific ways. Both sexes still continue to focus on traditional gender roles and concepts, girls and women towards traditional domestic role expectations, boys and men towards traditional career and work expectations, leaving out of consideration the promotion of career opportunities for women, the sharing of family responsibilities and the development of non-aggressive concepts of masculinity.
9. Boys generally seem to have difficulties with the various norms and concepts of masculinity. Male sex-stereotyping in school stresses boys and reinforces male-orientated concepts of inequality, specifically with regard to gender and to the cultural and ethnic background of girls and boys. In this situation boys tend towards troublesome and violent behaviour which can have a negative impact on co-educational teaching and on equality activities in school.
10. The re-emergence of a male sub-culture with a readiness to use violence especially in the context of extremist right-wing activities shows a renewed occurence of sexual harrassment and male violence, racism and xenophobia, endangering the egalisation process so far achieved in education and society.
11. The emergence of virtual violence against girls and women in the mass-media, software etc. further endangers the egalisation process.
12. Reviews of the effectiveness of legislation and other measures undertaken to promote equality actively (Swedish Ministry of Education and Science 1993) show that the abandoning of formal obstacles blocking equal opportunities do not make enough difference to eliminate traditional role patterns. A report of OECD experts on Women, Work and Health (1993 a) suggests with regard to equality at work in consideration of the health problems of women that policies ought to analyse whether equality as a norm is promoted or not and, moreover, whether gender differences are accepted in a gender-sensitive way or not.
13. The re-emerging of racism and xenophobia suggests that equality policies in education need an integration of both the gender and the cross-cultural dimensions as norms actively promoted in a gender-sensitive way.
Action taken by the Council of Europe
14. Education and equality of opportunity for girls and women was the main theme of the Standing Conference of European Ministers of Education in 1979, which adopted a statement on education and equality of opportunity for girls and women. In 1985, the Committee of Ministers of member states adopted a recommendation on teaching and learning about human rights in schools. In 1988 the Committee of Ministers adopted a declaration on equality of women and men.
15. The Council for Cultural Co-operation has considered sex stereotyping and gender equality in its projects on primary education and the fourteen to nineteen age-group and examined the specific situation of migrant women and girls in its project on the education and cultural development of migrants.
16. The Steering Committee for Equality between Women and Men has studied the participation of women in political life and sex stereotyping in the mass media.
17. The ministers of states of the Council of Europe participating in the 3rd European Ministerial Conference on equality between women and men in 1993 have adopted a declaration on policies for combating violence against women in a democratic Europe.
The gender dimension in education
18. Gender equality means the equality of girls and boys, women and men on a basis of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, cultural, civil or any other field according to Article 1 of the 1989 United Nations Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination against Women, defining "the term 'discrimination against women' shall mean any distinction, exclusion or restriction made on the basis of sex which has the effect or purpose of impairing or nullifying the recognition, enjoyment or exercise by women, irrespective of their marital status, on a basis of equality of men and women, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural, civil or any other field".
19. Equality of the sexes in education therefore is a question of
—eq uality of opportunities, equality of access to all educational institutions, freedom of choice and opportunity for both sexes. This applies to girls and boys with regard to equality of access to instruction; it applies to women and men with regard to equality at the work place, equality in opportunities with regard to career chances etc.;—
—eq uality of persons, who can equally develop in interactions and communications self-respect, self-image, self-concepts, attitudes, orientations and assertiveness in ways non-stereotyped by gender;—
—eq uality of perspectives, meaning the awareness and acceptance of differing experiences, norms and perceptions of the sexes resulting in different perspectives in their own right;—
—eq uality of knowledge. An immense expertise, specifically by the women's movement and feminist and cross-cultural research, has been gathered in the educational field as in the political, social, cultural, economic and any other fields, nationally and internationally, analysing male norms in society, the unequal power relationship of the sexes, sexual harrassment and violence against women and its implications on the personal integrity and health of girls and women; the traditional gender roles in education and how they steer and reduce the choices of both sexes of education, of occupation and life concepts, how they reinforce the sex-segregation of the labour market, the sex-specific allocation of family responsibilities, how they disadvantage and discriminate girls and women in obvious and less obvious ways, how co-education has not only led to more equality but also to less obvious forms of discrimination. This expertise has to be integrated into policy making, together with the feminist and cross-cultural expertise on important women in the European past and present and their significant contributions to European culture and society.Th
The cross-cultural dimension in education
20. Cross-cultural equality means the application of the human rights principles in "parity" and pluralist democracy to girls and boys, women and men of different cultural and ethnic origin who belong to ethnic minorities or are migrants or refugees in ways of mutual awareness and acceptance.
21. Needed is a change in perspective, a cross-cultural approach that makes communicating and learning in the educational field in a cross-cultural way possible. Teachers in school have not sufficient knowledge of the original cultures of migrant girls and boys, for instance Muslim culture and the history of Islam, yet view and speak about them in stereotypes, which makes it impossible for them to give support especially to migrant girls to relate to their own background and to come to terms with living in two or more cultures.
22. Historical and social events in their home countries are rarely mentioned in class. School may be the only social context in which parents allow their migrant daughters to enter into social relationships. Migrant girls are often looking to school for an escape from the restrictions placed on them at home. If this opportunity is then limited because teachers lack the information and awareness of the special situation of migrant girls, this increases their difficult situation and alienation and deprives them of necessary means of coping with their balancing between the often conflicting demands of their families and their schools. Lack of guidance in choosing education and a profession and lack of communication between schools and parents add to these difficulties.
A new approach to equality of gender: active promotion and gender sensitivity
23. In their report on women, work and health (1993: 71 ff) OECD experts suggest with regard to equality at work in consideration of the health problems of women that policies ought to be evaluated against a norm to see whether equality as a norm is promoted or not. As a second dimension of evaluation they suggest analysis of whether there is a gender sensitive or a gender insensitive approach. Thus they have a concept with the following four possibilities:
|
Gender differences accepted | |||
|
NO |
YES | ||
|
Equality as a norm is actively promoted |
NO |
Gender insensitive |
Gender stereotyping |
|
YES |
Gender neutral |
Gender sensitive | |
a. The gender insensitive approach means that gender differences are not accepted and equality as a norm is not actively promoted. Inequality is not explained by gender and male norms but by other resources. Their connection with gender is overlooked.
b. The gender stereotyping approach means that gender differences are accepted or even exaggerated but equality as a norm is not actively promoted. Implications are that women are the "weaker" sex etc. Male norms are explicit and generalised as "human" and obvious discriminations of girls and women are considered "normal" or "natural" because of the "nature of women".
c. The gender neutral (or gender blind) approach means that formal equality as a norm is actively promoted but gender differences are not taken into consideration or are neutralised. This is the approach embedded in the Nordic and North American gender equality ideology. Equality is seen as sameness of the sexes, without differences of the sexes. Therefore gender differences are not accepted. The aim is to neutralise them. This approach includes the aspect of hidden discrimination; in spite of formal equality, since the male norms in education and society are not questioned but still generalised.
d. The gender sensitive approach means that gender differences are accepted and equality as a norm is actively promoted. Hidden discriminations are taken into consideration and male norms are questioned. Individual and collective differences and the different viewpoints of women and men are appreciated. Equality is not seen as sameness of the sexes, because of the different realities of the sexes, the different life concepts, gender specific perception and experience of girls and women and boys and men etc.
24. The OECD experts consider the gender sensitive approach as the new approach to gender issues in the modern working world. "With a gender sensitive approach, standard for weight lifting, exposure to chemicals and temperature limits should be derived by testing in all relevant test situations. For example, today calculations of permitted exposure may presume that all workers have the same time available from recovery from muscle strain. Women's paid and unpaid work must be considered in time for recovery." (OECD 1993a:72). It is suggested here that this OECD concept be applied to equality policies in education.
Democracy and education
25. Democracy and human rights can only be taught in schools with a democratic setting. This means a gender balanced and cross-cultural setting with respect for the cultural plurality in Europe and for the dignity of the individual girl or boy, woman or man, where differences of gender, culture and ethnic origin are mutually accepted and ethnic and cultural differences of girls and boys, women and men and their different viewpoints and experiences are mutually appreciated.
Co-education
26. Formal equality in education has not been sufficient to achieve factual equality. Evidence suggests hidden forms of discrimination in co-education, resulting from male norms in education, an unequal power relationship of sexes in education, sex-segregation of work in the educational field, sex-stereotyping reinforcing the sex-specific allocation of family responsibilities, sexist use of language, sexual harrassment and violence against girls and women.
27. There is a large demand for teaching on the basis of non-sexist and non-racist teaching methods; for the improvement of educational interactions aiming at equality and non-violence; for revisions of female and male stereotyping, with the aim of pattern breaking, making mathematics and science subjects more attractive to girls and counteracting concepts of inequality and physical violence of boys, aiming at positive non-aggressive and family-oriented role models for boys.
28. There is a demand for non-sexist, non-racist and non-violent media education, counter-acting the effects of simulating reality and especially counteracting the effects of non-physical but virtual violence against girls and women.
29. Girls and boys are in need of pattern-breaking knowledge, especially of positive role models of women to improve their self-images and self-concepts, for instance women of the European past and present with significant contributions to society, especially in culture and politics, science and technology; women who are successful professionals of today, especially with non-traditional careers; women who are successful as principals and decision-makers, if possible within a gender balanced educational work force etc. These women can support girls to relate to their own gender in many positive ways. Thus girls can gain more self-esteem, can show more intellectual curiosity and assertiveness, can broaden or change their choice of education and occupation.
30. Girls and boys are in need of pattern-breaking knowledge in a gender sensitive way, of women's reality, their everyday life, their life concepts, their basic contributions to society such as family work, child-minding and care of elderly and sick people etc. They need to be informed about the impact childbearing and motherhood have on women and their social security, their activities, their health situation, their economic situation; about the impact parenthood has on men and on their marital relations. They need to be informed about sexuality and family planning.
31. International evidence shows that there is a need for broader choices of segregation for girls; especially in mathematics, technology and computer knowledge; for projects, workshops, out-of-school courses in technology and engineering provided for girls; for guidance and counselling specifically for girls which helps them to identify and then make non-traditional curricular and occupational choices.
Country cases
32. Subsequently to a forum discussion on gender equality in education, which took place in Strasbourg on 21 September 1993, a questionnaire was sent to all member countries of the European Cultural Convention. Thirteen countries replied. In all of these states co-education is the norm of education, besides some schools or classes for girls or boys only.
33. The number of years of compulsory school attendance ranges from five to ten years. In all countries parents do not have to pay school fees at primary and secondary education level. In some countries they have either to pay textbooks and teaching material or to pay fees for them. State-financed education grants are available in most countries; with a tendency for them to be given to more boys than girls. In most of these countries access to secondary and higher secondary education depends on examinations and/or teachers' decisions (without examinations) and/or parents/students decision (free choice). In about half of the countries, guidance to encourage girls in pursuing their education is not considered to be necessary. The same applies to measures to establish guidance for girls. With the exception of one country vocational guidance is available for both sexes in school.
34. The sex-distribution of students varies in these countries very much as follows:
Primary education: girls from 48% to 51%; boys from 49% to 52%.
Secondary education: girls from 38% to 51%; boys from 49% to 62%.
Higher secondary education: girls from 36% to 65%; boys from 35% to 61%.
There is a tendency of an increase of girls within higher secondary education, probably because more boys than girls change at this time to vocational education.
35. The sex-distribution of teachers also varies very much:
Primary education: women from 43% to 84%; men from 16% to 57%.
Secondary education: women from 60% to 82%; men from 18% to 40%.
Higher secondary education: women from 40% to 60%: men from 40% to 60%.
In most countries there was no data available concerning the sex-distribution of the administrative staff in school. The same applies to the sex distribution of department heads.
The school heads or principals show the following variations according to the data in the questionnaire:
Primary education: women from 28% to 82%; men from 18% to 82%.
Secondary education: women from 26% to 42%; men from 59% to 76%.
Higher secondary education: women from 6% to 35%; men from 65% to 94%.
These figures show that gender balancing will be a point of discussion for many years to come. The same applies to the sex distribution of school inspectorates. The variation is as follows: women from 4% to 75%; men from 25% to 96% in the different countries.
There are countries nearly without or with few women school inspectors and others with few men school inspectors. But in most countries women are the minority, either as principals or as school inspectors.
36. In most countries there is a curriculum on technology in primary schools available for both sexes. The variations at secondary and higher secondary level, however, suggest that girls in some countries are denied equal access to technology education:
Secondary education: girls from 5% to equal; boys from 50% to 95%.
Higher secondary education: girls from 7% to equal; boys from 50% to 93%.
37. A curriculum on women in the history and culture of the countries questioned is the exception, mostly there is none or it is optional. The same applies to the question of a curriculum on women's everyday work and life. It is obvious that there is a lack of awareness of the pattern-breaking quality of curricula of this kind.
38. Some countries state that information about the cultures of origin of migrant girls and boys is included in teaching materials and teacher presentation. Accordingly gender approach and multicultural approach seem to be understood rather formally.
39. While male violence is considered a problem only in some countries, media education is in most countries considered to be necessary, but mostly not because of violence and xenophobia.
40. With the exception of one country sex education is provided, mostly starting at primary education. The same applies to family planning education. Most countries provide parenthood education. There are three countries where girls cannot complete school in case of pregnancy. They have only external educational possibilities such as evening courses.
41. There are only two countries where parents are explicitly not considered responsible for their children's success in school. The same applies to school homework. In nearly all countries parents insist on fixed and regular school time schedules in primary and secondary education. Nearly all countries state that there is a debate about caring for children of school age.
Women's organisations
42. In some countries women's organisations have explicit demands on school. They focus on three targets:
—th e promotion of co-education, sex education, non-sexist professional guidance and encouragement for girls into studying science and new technologies, elimination of sexism, pornography and violence in school;—
—al l-day schooling, school-age child care, hot meals in school etc.—
—im provement of leave of absence, part time arrangements, family tailored working hours.Le
Legislation and measures taken by member states
43. If legislation exists in member states designed to improve gender equality this is either in the constitutional or in an education act. A few member states consider more years of compulsory schooling to be necessary to improve formal equality. Special measures introduced differ greatly. Some countries have an equality plan, an equal rights committee, monitoring installed, have curricula, textbooks, educational material reviewed, have information and teaching material distributed, have teachers trained in service, have action programmes initiated, do research work. Some have monitoring, mostly national.
Experience of member states
44. Fields of importance in public debate in the various member states are as follows:
|
Field of action |
very important |
important |
not important |
|
human rights education deficits of co-education gender balance of teaching staff and school management sex stereotyping of girls and boys disadvantaging of migrant girls revision of male stereotypes and role models for boys parenthood education male violence in school male predominance in technology non-discrimination language in school antisexist and antiracist curriculum revision antisexist and antiracist textbook revision access to information on family planning girls' guidance for choice of education and occupation gender approach as part of teacher training fixed time schedule of school communication between school and parents participation of parents democratisation of school positive discrimination |
11 1 3 3 5 4 4 3 3 5 2 5 2 3 6 5 1 8 7 8 3 |
< 1 4 > < 9 7 < 4 2 > < 5 8 2 > 3 8 < 6 2 7 < 4 < 6 7 > < 4 < 5 < 1 6 |
1 7 1 4 4 6 3 3 7 5 2 2 1 3 2 2 6 1 0 2 4 |
45. Member states declare that their legislation has resulted in more awareness (of teachers, publishers, public), in eliminating sexism from textbooks and educational material, in an increase of girls attendance.
46. As obstacles are considered sexist violence, that attitudes change very slowly, that there is a lack of awareness and knowledge, that vocational aspirations are gender specific and that the range of occupations for girls and women is restricted, that there is a need for more teacher training.
47. Member states consider as effective instruments to improve gender equality:
—le gislation: national legislation and institutional monitoring; co-education and length of compulsory schooling, introduction of equality as a cross-section theme, curriculum revision, gender balancing, improvements in the field of occupations;—
—aw areness and knowledge: training of teachers, staff and specialists; research; production of teaching material reviewed, media education; revision of male stereotypes and role models for boys.—
—lo cal school initiatives.Re
Research
48. Gender-sensitive and cross-cultural research in regional, national and transnational research programmes should be initiated or intensified into
—in ternal work of schools (gender-specific interactions and gender-specific perception; self-concepts, assertiveness and attitudes of girls and boys; sex role patterns, sex-segregation, gender sensitive and cross-cultural pedagogical strategies and gender sensitive and cross-cultural expertise on girls' and women's reality and important women of history as a factor of pattern-breaking in school; factors which favour boys and men, factors which favour girls and women, factors which favour innovation);—
—em pirical studies inside the classroom, inside school;—
—ef fects of gender biased curricula and expertise and revision work (curricula, syllabi, textbooks and teaching material); —
—po ssible links between masculinity and violence (male stereotyping, male identity problems and inequality and violence in education; sexual harrassment and violence against girls and women in school);—
—le gislation and measures that had a real impact;—
—pr ojects for training teaching and counselling; for implementation of feminist and cross-cultural expertise on girls' and women's reality; for implementation of school policy programmes to reduce gender and ethnic discrimination; for establishing working groups of teachers, students, administrators, researchers etc. networking on local, regional, national and international level.In
International co-operation
49. Most member states express a need for transnational consultation and exchange of national and regional experience with legislation, programmes, research, materials etc. They suggest to promote research and they define various targets of studies and policy-making. One proposal is to organise an international meeting of experts on the effects of co-education and afterwards a policy-making conference. Exchange programmes for teachers, students, researchers are suggested to provide more awareness and more knowledge on gender and cross-cultural equality.
Conclusion
50. Improvement of gender and cross-cultural equality in education needs to be based on the feminist and cross-cultural expertise of feminist and migrant researchers and their participation in the exercise of the political, scientific and pedagogical instruments such as national monitoring, intensified national and international research, national and transnational exchange, consultation and multiplication, local, regional, national and transnational gender-sensitive and cross-cultural policy-making etc. This must be firmly incorporated in growing European co-operation.
Bibliography
OECD 1993a: Women, Work and Health: Synthesis Report of a Panel of Experts, Paris 1993
OECD 1993b: Report on the Helsinki Conference on Women and Structural Change: A Mirror on the Future, OECD, Paris 1993
Spender, Dale/Sarah, Elizabeth, (eds) 1988: Learning to Lose. Sexism and Education. Revised Edition with a new introduction by Pat Mahony, The Womenís Press Limited, London 1988
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Reporting committee: Committee on Culture and Education.
Budgetary implications for the Assembly: none.
Reference to the committee: Doc. 6648 and Reference No. 1801 of 30 September 1992.
Draft recommendation: adopted unanimously by the committee on 1 June 1994.
Members of the committee: Mrs Fischer (Chairman), Sir Russell Johnston, Mr de Puig (Vice-Chairmen), MM. Alegre, Arnalds, Bauer, Berg, Berti, Bonnici, Bratinka, Decagny, Deniau (Alternate: Baumel), Mrs Err, Mr Ferrari, Mrs Fleeetwood MM. Galanos, Baroness Gould of Potternewton, Mrs Gül, Mrs Guourova, Mrs Hawlicek, Mr Hint, Mrs Hjelm-Wallen, Baroness Hooper, MM. Ivanov, Karas, Kouck, Lopez Henares, Malachowski, Mangakis, Maruflu, Mesoraca (Alternate: Caldoro), Mocioi, Monfils, Muehlemann, Müller, Pahtas, Paunescu, Mrs Robert, Mr Roseta, Mrs Ryynänen, MM. Schmidt, Schreiner, Seeuws, Siwiec, Školć, Soell, Stefanopoulos, Ms Szelenyi, MM. Tatarella (Alternate: Visibelli), Tummers, Upton, Vajda, Verbeek, Vogt, Zingeris.
N.B. The names of those who took part in the vote are in italics.
Secretaries to the committee: MM. Grayson and Ary.