Doc. 9373

15 February 2002

Fisheries in Europe’s semi-land-locked seas

Report

Committee on the Environment and Agriculture

Rapporteur: Mr Wolfgang Behrendt, Germany, Socialist Group

Summary

The fisheries sector is at risk in most seas and countries because of overfishing and pollution. The situation is particularly severe for the three semi-land-locked seas: the Baltic, the Mediterranean and the Black Sea. To save them and their ecosystems, we need to protect the marine environment and preserve the living resources.

Be it the Baltic cod, the Mediterranean hake or the Black Sea sturgeon, many species are overfished and could even disappear if stricter measures to limit captures are not taken. A sustainable exploitation of living marine resources should be implemented by introducing protected areas and closed seasons, quotas and minimum fish sizes, or by selecting fishing methods and reducing by-catches.

The semi-land-locked seas are also suffering from severe pollution, acerbated by a very low capacity to renew their waters. Part of the Baltic suffers from eutrophication, 35% of the world’s oil transport crosses the Mediterranean and the Black Sea is anoxic beyond the depth of a hundred metres. Be it due to sea transport, waste disposal or dumping at sea, all pollution sources should be tackled, particularly by implementing the various relevant international conventions.

I.       Draft recommendation

1.       The Assembly is concerned about the risk of destruction of the particularly fragile ecosystems of semi-land-locked seas : the Baltic Sea, the Mediterranean Sea and the Black Sea, and about the threat of overexploitation of fish stocks and marine pollution on fish populations and therefore the whole fishing sector.

2.       The Assembly refers to the following relevant legal instruments:

-       Convention for the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping from Ships and Aircraft (Oslo Convention);

-       Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter (London Convention);

-       Convention on the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea Area (Helsinki Convention);

-       Convention for the Prevention of Marine Pollution from Land-Based Sources (Paris Convention);

-       United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea;

-       Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (Washington Convention);

-       Convention for the Protection of the Mediterranean Sea against Pollution (Barcelona Convention).

3.       The European fishing fleet now comprises over 100 000 vessels. Over 200 000 individuals are directly employed in the fishing sector. Intensive fishing methods have led to over-fishing and have drastically altered interrelations among the various species. Disputes over fishing quotas in the European Union are cautionary examples of foreseeable future clashes over the apportionment of ever-decreasing fish resources.

4.       The fishing sector and the state of marine ecosystems are intimately linked. Excessive or inappropriate fishing can seriously impair such ecosystems and cause lasting damage to the biological balance. If the diversity of marine species is to be preserved, therefore, much greater attention must be paid to the effects of fishing on marine animals and habitats.

5.       In view of the increasing human settlement of coastal areas, the growth in industrial production and the ever greater pollution in catchment areas, extensive, sometimes irreversible damage is inevitable unless immediate action is taken to provide international protection for the seas.

6.       Against this background, the Assembly calls for increased co-operation, especially between political decision-makers and economic operators, and corresponding co-ordination in this field with a view to providing long-term protection for both fish populations and the marine environment.

7.       The Assembly therefore recommends that the Committee of Ministers call on member states to:

i.       take energetic action to ensure co-ordination of the various national research programmes with a view to harmonising the different marine research methods in order to guarantee comparability of data and compatibility of analytical methods;

ii.       ensure the drafting of regulations on time-limits and geographical boundaries for fishing activities in order to protect certain fish species (introduction of boxes or protected areas);

iii.       take measures to reduce by-catches and establish minimum sizes for specimens caught;

iv.       advocate prohibiting fishing for the exclusive purpose of fish-meal or fish-oil processing;

v.       adapt their fleet capacities to the available resources, thus helping restore fish stocks and facilitate renewed high-level exploitation;

vi.       promote development of economic activities in regions and fields especially hard-hit by fishery problems, in particular through strategies to facilitate sustainable exploitation of living marine resources, with due regard to the special needs and interests of small-scale inshore fisheries and local communities;

vii.       intensify legal sanctions against individuals or companies damaging the marine environment through marine transport, disposal of harmful substances through the air or rivers and dumping of waste in the sea, in accordance with the provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, and establish owner liability;

viii.       give concrete expression to such measures by improving long-term protection of the marine environment, for example by calculating TACs (Total Allowable Catches) and constantly adjusting these TACs to prevailing biological conditions;

ix.       take action to heighten consumer awareness of the risk of reduced availability of fish as a foodstuff, for example by ensuring that packaged products comprise information on the fishing zone of origin and fishing methods used;

x.       implement the Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries (FAO, 1995), and particularly the precautionary principle for fisheries policy, the related International Plans of Action as well as the Agreement to Promote Compliance with International Conservation and Management Measures by Fishing Vessels on the High Seas;

xi.       establish strategies, adopt measures, collect data and develop techniques to help reduce by-catches and discarding of fish. These aims should particularly be pursued in the framework of the relevant international, regional and sub-regional organisations, especially the European Union or the FAO, or multilateral conventions;

xii.       take energetic action to supervise the aforementioned measures, if appropriate by imposing moratoriums on the fishing of endangered and overexploited populations.

II.       Explanatory memorandum by Mr Behrendt

1.       Introduction       5

2.       Legal provisions and international conventions        6

3.       Fish stocks, catch quotas and fishing methods       7

4.       Sustainable fishing and preservation of living marine resources       8

      a. Protected areas and closed seasons

      b. Minimum fish sizes and by-catches

      c. Fishing methods and limitation of by-catches and discarding of fish

      d. Reducing industrial fishery or “Gammelfischerei” (”junk fishing”)

      e. Structural measures

5.       Economic significance of fisheries for selected regions        10

6.       Marine pollution and destruction of marine habitats       11

      a. Pollution caused by the transport function of the sea

b. Damage to the waste disposal or “dump” function of the sea

      c. Dumping at sea

      d. Impairment to the seas and marine habitats through fishing and over-fishing

7.       Marine environment and climate changes        13

8.       New assignments for fisheries research        14

9.       Fish consumption and consumer protection        14

10.       International co-operation and international agreements       15

11.       The fishing sector in the Baltic Sea region       15

12.       The fishing sector in the Mediterranean region        20

13.       The fishing sector in the Black Sea region        26

BIBLIOGRAPHY       33

The limiting factor on fishing is no longer just

the number of fishing boats, but also the size

of the remaining fish population.

Herman Daly1

1.       Introduction

1.       Europe has three semi-land-locked seas: the Mediterranean, the Baltic and the Black Seas. Fishing is an old-established tradition in all three of these seas and plays a significant role for coastal communities there. However, populations of fish and other living creatures in these seas have suffered serious environmental pollution. All three of these major ecosystems are in crisis, and over-fishing and pollution have taken on such proportions as to threaten the future of the seas. Even though the causes and dangers of marine pollution have long been known, the situation has worsened in the last few years. Sustainable development of the three seas is putting Europeans to the test, requiring them to pay ever greater heed to the dangers and take practical action.

2.       At the beginning of the 21st century we should be increasingly aware of our dependence on the earth’s natural resources. The marine environment is a vital component of the global biosphere and constitutes an asset, provided its possibilities are used with an eye to sustainable development. The greatest danger facing the marine ecosystem, alongside the threat of inputs of harmful substances, the long-term effect of climate change and the depletion of the ozone layer, is over-fishing. Fishing is one of the primary ways of exploiting the marine environment, provide the necessary employment in coastal areas and contribute to the economic and social well-being of fishing areas. However, intensive fishing and the use of ultramodern fishing technologies have led to a dramatic decline in populations in many parts of these seas.

3.       Fish are a natural and naturally regenerating resource over whose reproduction and migrations we have no control. Healthy populations can be sustainably fished in reasonable numbers, but they need a healthy marine environment. In the long term an economically sustainable fishing industry can only be maintained through a sensible, precautionary stock management method geared to preserving the limited resources on which fisheries depend. Over-fishing in a given fishery leads inexorably to its economic decline.

4.       International co-operation must be conducted to manage fisheries and protect the marine environment in such a way as to guarantee regular regeneration of populations and protection of marine ecosystems. Future environmental policies must take greater account of the interaction between fisheries and such ecosystems. If we are to achieve sustainable development in this sector, we must stop managing fish stocks exclusively from the angle of individual fish populations and instead adopt an approach which also takes account of interaction between different marine ecosystems.

5.       This report is aimed at identifying possibilities for improving compatibility between stock management and protection of the marine environment, having due regard to the relevant legal provisions, interaction between fishing activities, marine life and marine habitats, as well as environmental damage caused by outside influences on the sea.

6.       The report deals with the semi-land-locked Baltic, Mediterranean and Black Seas. Such almost completely land-locked seas as the Black Sea, in which water circulation is limited and harmful substances less diluted, are generally more sensitive to inputs than open oceans. The natural wealth of the sea as a source of human food, the diversity of marine species and the multiplicity of fish and marine mammals are at particular risk in these seas from a whole series of external factors. Alongside the danger of pollution and the long-term consequences of climate change, over-fishing is the most direct threat to the marine environment. Decades of intensive fishing and the use of ultramodern fishing technologies have led to a dramatic drop in stocks in Europe’s three inland seas, namely the Mediterranean, the Baltic and the Black Sea.

2.       Legal provisions and international conventions

7.       Many regional, national and international legal provisions and conventions have laid down regulations on the protection and exploitation of seas. In the case of EU agreements, the international regulations are incorporated into Community Directives which are legally directly binding on each member State.

8.       The main international and multilateral agreements and organisations include:

9.       The EU also belongs to the International Commissions for the Conservation of Atlantic and Mediterranean Tuna. Moreover, Article 130 r of the Agreement on the European Union (Maastricht Agreement) provides that all policy areas must respect the precautionary and preventive principles.

10.       In 1995 a regulation was introduced requiring all ships wishing to fish Community waters and all EU trawlers operating outside Community waters to apply for a licence.

3.       Fish stocks, catch quotas and fishing methods

11.       Fishing catches have been steadily growing since 1948. According to official statistics some 100 million tonnes of fish are caught every year worldwide. In 1989 the total value of the global haul came to approx. 70 000 million US dollars. Twelve million people are directly employed in the fisheries and a further 150 million work in other sectors of the fishing industry2.

12.       Over the millennia fishing methods and techniques have constantly evolved and improved. Large modern vessels (>30 m long) involved in middle- and near-water fishing have engines of around 300 HP, while deep-sea trawlers (50-100 m long) have between 4000 and 8000 HP. In addition to such high-powered engines, modern fishing boats are equipped with sonars which provide long-distance horizontal and vertical information on fish concentrations. Net-fill indicators provide information on the quantity of fish entering the net and show when the net should be brought in. The European fishing fleet (excluding the Mediterranean countries) currently embraces 60 000 ships, and some 200 000 individuals are directly employed in fishing. However, the fishermen’s knowledge of their quarry, namely fish, and marine living and production conditions, is based more on traditional experience of “good fishing grounds and seasons” than on understanding of biological contexts and processes. This means that we are currently using ultramodern fishing methods on fish populations about whose biology and ecology we often know precious little.

13.       This intensive approach has led to over-fishing, which has drastically altered the interrelations among species. The EU has too many fishermen for the existing fish resources, many of which are exhausted, and the disputes about EU fishing quotas should alert us to possible future wrangling over apportionment of the ever-dwindling fish resources. Fisheries are exceeding the Total Allowable Catches because of the over-capacity of fleets and the lack of supervision, although a further reason is that fishing nations are reluctant to provide for such supervision. Catches are generally supervised by means of logbooks, which makes the whole procedure rather haphazard. The supervisory methods and measures used in EU fisheries are currently deemed “highly inadequate and incomplete”3. Some countries deliberately misinform the official bodies or else refuse to give them any information whatever.

Drift net fishing

14.       Drift net fishing is one of the most destructive fishing methods. It is incompatible with the principles of sustainable exploitation and has devastating effects on seabirds, sea turtles and marine mammals. Resolutions 44/225, 45/197 and 46/215 adopted by the General Assembly of the United Nations in 1990 and 1991 prohibited large-area deep-sea drift net fishing outside the twelve-mile limit. This prohibition came into force in 1992. However, it has the serious drawback of being enforceable neither by legal action nor at a formal international level. No institution has ever been set up to effectively supervise it or, if appropriate, to force individuals or bodies to comply by threatening sanctions. Furthermore, it contains no definition of the concept of “large-area” drift net fishing. Nevertheless, the international community has since agreed that a “large area” implies a minimum net length of 2.5 km. Most fishing nations have now incorporated the resolutions into their national legislation and prohibited drift net fishing using nets longer than 2.5 km. The EU banned large-area drift net fishing in October 1991, with effect from 1 June 1992. The corresponding resolution prohibits all EU ships operating inside and outside national fishery zones and all non-EU ships within EU waters from using one or more drift net(s) of a total or aggregate length of over 2.5 km. Furthermore, any net exceeding 1 km in length must remain fastened to the fishing vessel at all times.

15.       In June 1998 the Council issued a complete ban on all vessels (including boats from third nations) engaging in drift net fishing in all EU waters (excluding the Baltic Sea)as from January 2002. This ban also applies to EU ships fishing international and non-EU waters. In the transition period up to the end of 2001 drift net fishing can only be pursued by boats having implemented it to date, and that in a very limited manner under strict supervisory conditions.

4.       Sustainable fishing and preservation of living marine resources

16.       In view of the intensifying clashes over the apportionment of dwindling marine resources the States must prioritise protection of marine ecosystems against destructive exploitation and over-fishing. The deep-sea fishing management methods used in many EU regions are incompatible with such requirements, and a number of resources are being over-exploited. The resultant problems include uncontrolled fishing activities, outsize fishing fleets, insufficiently selective fishing equipment, unreliable data banks and a lack of interstate co-operation.

17.       The measures to preserve and manage fishing resources are basically the same the world over. They concentrate on limiting catch quotas, that is to say establishing annual Total Allowable Catches (TACs) based on recommendations from international scientific organisations, and breaking down these TACs into national quotas and technical measures mainly aimed at protecting natural regeneration of fish and preventing or at least reducing by-catches of unwanted species. The following measure might improve management methods with a view to preservation of stocks:

a.       Protected areas and closed seasons

18.       Limiting fishery expenditure is becoming an increasingly important management tool. Such reductions can be achieved by regulating fishing activities through licences and fishing permits issued for specific areas or fish species, or by limiting the number of days ships can spend at sea. This facility is to be used mainly where fishing resources are under heavy pressure from oversized fleets and where existing regulatory measures are insufficient to reduce this pressure. The EU so far only has one provision on limiting fishery activities, namely the summer fishing ban (June to August) on Baltic cod. Yet protection is also needed in other seas for various species during the breeding season, when they concentrate in specific areas. Areas with concentrations of young growing fish are under a particular threat at certain times of the year. Provisions are urgently needed on geographical and seasonal restrictions on fishing activities or the introduction and expansion of boxes (protected areas) within which fishing for specific varieties is prohibited or restricted to specified periods.

b.       Minimum fish sizes and by-catches

19.       Fish die both naturally and as the result of external impacts such as fishing, which is why fish populations must be naturally regenerated. If stocks are to be renewed small fish must be spared, as this is the only way of allowing them to become sexually mature and reproduce. Ideally, only such quantities of fish should be taken from each population as is compatible with natural balance and general stock renewal. There are biological and economic advantages to sparing fish that are too young. The establishment of landing provisions (eg minimum sizes of fish, crustaceans and molluscs and maximum by-catch sizes) and landing bans guarantees the survival of sufficient numbers of adult fish not to jeopardise the size and health of fish populations. Therefore, in addition to stipulating permissible catch sizes we also need measures to prevent or at least limit catches of young, sexually immature fish, so that they can develop into adults and help renew populations. Fish species which are unwanted because they have no market value or because fisheries no longer have a quota for them, as well as marine mammals, seabirds and other species must also be protected. This can be done with such measures as minimum mesh sizes to allow young fish through the net and limit by-catches of other species.

c.       Fishing methods and limitation of by-catches and discarding of fish

20.       The most common fishing method in Europe is trawling, which comprises a variety of techniques. Usually a bag-shaped net is trawled along with its opening kept wide open during operations: the fish swim in and are caught in the so-call “cod-end” at the bottom of the “bag”. Larger meshes and specially shaped meshes in the cod-end or chambers or walls located in the net itself help make the catch more selective. We must encourage the development and diversity of such selective fishing devices, practices and net prescriptions, which minimise by-catch and help protect young fish. Moreover, with very few exceptions, particular fish species cannot be accurately targeted even with the help of high technology. This is why all fishing operations comprise some degree of by-catch (of non-target species/undersize fish), which is thrown overboard, sometimes injured or dead, while the vessel is still at sea. By-catch comprises fish, other vertebrates (eg small cetaceans) and organisms living on the seafloor or benthos (eg starfish, crustaceans and molluscs). According to estimates from the UN Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), in addition to the annual 56 million tons of fish landed for human consumption and industrial fishing, between 17 and 39 million tons of fish and other marine animals are thrown overboard unused. An extreme example of discarded and therefore wasted resources is provided by the Mediterranean fishing industry, where 82% of fish and marine animals caught are thrown overboard. The by-catch and concomitant discarding of fish and other animals, which derive from the prescribed fishing methods, constitute a considerable problem. In order to minimise these phenomena technical measures are needed, in addition to the Total Allowable Catches and quotas, to limit catches of sexually immature fish and non-target species, aimed at specific geographical areas and comprising minimum mesh sizes and use of selective fishing equipment. Direct responsibility on the part of the fishermen and effective supervision in tandem with proper technical measures would go a long way towards solving the environmental and economic problems of discarded fish.

d.       Reducing industrial fishery or “Gammelfischerei” (“junk fishing”)

21.       Behind the “industrial fishery” concept lurks an economic sector which uses about a third of the global annual catch (30 million tonnes), to a total value of 3000 to 4000 million US$, to produce approx. 6.5 million tonnes of fish meal and 1.3 million tonnes of fish oil4. Denmark is the biggest EU fishing nation and accounts for approx. 80% of the industrial fishing sector, followed by Norway, Sweden and Scotland, which are also fairly intensively involved.

22.       The Gammelfischerei concept derives from the fact of not refrigerating fish on board ship and letting them “vergammeln” (rot) (this is the Danish conception of “old fish”). Gammelfischerei uses fine-meshed nets mainly catching such small species as anchovies, sand eels, smelt and sprat. However, young specimens of such table fish as cod, herring and plaice are also incidentally caught.

23.       Industrial fishing (or “Gammelfischerei”) is geared exclusively to processing fish catches into fish meal or oil. These products are used in the production of breads, pastries and cosmetics, but above all for animal fodder. Statistics show that 55% of fish meal production goes to poultry farming, 20% to pig breeding and some 17% to aquaculture. Some 25% of overall fish-oil production is also earmarked for animal feeds. However, most of the fish oil produced (70%) is used in food production (margarines and cooking fats) because of is high omega 3 fatty acid content.

24.       Industrial fishing is particularly destructive to marine ecosystems. There is an astronomically high level of by-catch of young specimens of table fish, and particularly in inshore waters these fishing methods may create competition with seabirds and sea mammals which also feed on small fish. Small fish are also an important part of the food chain for such table fish as herring and cod, and for cetaceans, seals and seabirds; but the small mesh size used in Gammelfischerei makes it impossible for young specimens to slip through. This makes industrial fishing a major cause of dwindling stocks of young fish and a threat to regeneration of populations.

25.       One sensible alternative source of the raw material for fish meal and oil production would be to convert fish scraps left over after fish processing: this practice is in fact already fairly common on factory ships and in fish meal and fish oil production companies on land. In particularly sensitive areas industrial fishing should be gradually phased out.

e.       Structural measures

26.       EU member States have the third biggest fishing fleet in the world, which means that they bear a weighty responsibility for the wasteful exploitation of the marine biomass and the consequent threats to humanity and nature. The FAO points out that the European fishing fleets have “critical overcapacities”. An EU study has shown that the fleets will have to be cut by 40% if they are to correspond to available fishing resources. Furthermore, in keeping with these resources, they also need urgent modernisation in order both to improve cost-effectiveness and competitiveness and to reduce excess fishing capacities. This applies in particular to family-run cutter and inshore fishing enterprises, which often lack capital. The Multi-Annual Programmes (MAPs) drawn up under the EU Common Fisheries Policy for each individual member State are already engaged in restructuring the fleets. In December 1997 MAP IV was adopted to carry on from MAP III, which expired at the end of 1996. The idea is to reduce fishing of endangered or overexploited populations by up to 30% between 1997 and the end of 2001, as compared with the aims of the previous programme.

27.       If populations of marine species are to be maintained at or increased to a level ensuring optimum sustainable yield and if rare or sensitive ecosystems and habitats are to be preserved, catch quotas must be established, and above all respected, on the basis of reliable scientific facts. Greater account must therefore be taken of scientific research results in resource management and analysis of the biological consequences of fishing, and co-operation and exchange stepped up between researchers. A responsible fishing industry and sustainable development necessitate active co-operation with the regional fishery organisations and intensive collaboration with professional associations and environmental organisations.

5.       Economic significance of fisheries for selected regions

28.       Even though fishing accounts for only about one per cent of the world’s overall economy, it is vitally necessary for certain regions. The Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO) reports that the number of fishermen and fish farmers increased from 13 million to some 30 million between 1970 and 1997. According to FAO estimates, some 1.8 million inhabitants of European Union countries earn their living directly from the fishing and fish-processing industries. Even though the number of persons employed in fisheries is small in absolute terms, fishing and related industries are of great economic importance for the structurally weak coastal areas in which they are concentrated. The fishing industry has considerable influence on the employment situation in coastal regions, and when fishing enterprises collapse there are seldom sufficient alternative jobs, given that unemployment is much higher than national averages in such regions.

29.       The fisheries sector underwent a boom in the second half of the 20th century, mainly thanks to improved techniques and modernised fishing gear. However, despite efforts at the regional, sub-regional, national and global levels the current approach to managing marine and coastal resources has not always been conducive to sustainable development. In many parts of Europe coastal resources and environments are exposed to increasing damage and destruction. The various fishery branches are facing an increasing structural imbalance between fishing capacity and development potential for fishing resources. In 1995, with few exceptions, income trends in the whole fishery area worsened still further. Over the last five years, many fishing enterprises have lost over 50% of their turnover because of dwindling fish stocks and low prices, placing their very existence on the line.

30.       Whereas protection of natural resources is often seen as jeopardising employment, the restoration of fish stocks would in fact create jobs. Even the requisite reduction in fishing fleets would not threaten employment if governments stopped subsidising highly mechanised ships. While only a maximum of five persons are employed for every million dollars invested, the same amounts provide upkeep for 60 to 3000 employees in small-scale inshore fisheries. Inshore fishing can be an environment-friendly activity provided ecologically compatible technologies and management methods are used. By exploiting regenerative resources it helps strengthen the local economy, boost environment-friendly tourism and maintain social and cultural structures. Strategies for sustained exploitation for living marine resources must be developed with due regard to the specific needs and interests of small-scale inshore fishing and the local communities, with coastal states promoting long-term preservation of such small-scale fisheries. Action is needed to support training facilities and inshore fishing, further develop small-scale exploitation of living marine resources and facilitate balanced participation by the local communities.

6.       Marine pollution and destruction of marine habitats

a.       Pollution caused by the transport function of the sea

31.       To the public mind, pollution from sea transport is the classic example of marine pollution. And yet this is the area of marine environmental policy where the greatest successes have been registered to date. Article 211 (2) of the Convention on the Law of the Sea echoes existing regulations by requiring parties to adopt laws and regulations to protect the environment from pollution from vessels flying their flag. The Annexes to the Convention, which are universally legally binding, require signatory states to pass environmental legislation: they must issue technical standards for ship construction, equipment and crews, and ecologically harmful conduct by ships’ crews must be made punishable by law. Article 211 (6) of the Convention on the Law of the Sea entitles coastal states, in co-operation and in agreement with the International Maritime Organisation (IMO), to issue special regulations on particularly endangered zones. Several semi-land-locked sea areas have been designated as international “specially protected zones”. The Annexes lay down fairly strict regulations on such protected areas: for instance, in the special areas covered by Annex I oil discharges are strictly prohibited, except in emergencies. The Baltic, Mediterranean and Black Seas are all special internationally protected zones.

32.       The entry into force of numerous internationally binding legal provisions on protection of the marine environment and ship safety cannot camouflage shortcomings in implementation of such provisions. For all the successes, marine pollution caused by transport is still an environmental problem that can have devastating effects. There are various possible measures to combat this type of marine pollution: for example, the costs of retrofitting or laying up outdated vessels could in some cases be borne by the international community by virtue of the common burden principle, possibly through an international equalisation fund. Furthermore, a market-oriented alternative approach could be adopted under which environmental taxes would be levied by port authorities under the polluter-pays principle, depending on ship age and model. This would make it more expensive to keep older vessels in operation and thus lead to internationalisation of the potential risk of old tankers in shipping price calculations.

An overview of the causes of marine pollution5:


33.       Approximately 600 000 tons of petroleum are discharged into the sea every year from normal ship transport, accidents and illegal discharges. There are still no reliable procedures for establishing responsibilities, eg for illegal oil discharges on the high seas, even though future developments in satellite technologies should improve the situation. In addition to improving methods of establishing responsibilities for illegal discharges, the legal consequences of marine environmental pollution should be tightened up, as the relatively lenient fines imposed seldom correspond to the gravity of the actual pollution. Such penalties are insufficient deterrents to ship owners and crews vis-à-vis illegal oil discharges.

b       Damage to the waste disposal or “dump” function of the sea

34.       Our seas are being polluted from a multitude of sources, including municipal and industrial waste water, agricultural fertilisers and pesticides, and harmful substances from ship transport and sea drilling operations which filter into the sea, creating serious pollution, starting near the coasts.

35.       Many harmful substances enter the sea from the air. According to the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) the following harmful substances enter the high seas from the atmosphere: lead, cadmium, copper, zinc, arsenic, nickel and polychlorinated biphenyls.

36.       Waste products are discharged into the sea by rivers. In addition to ecologically harmful chemicals, the sediments deposited by rivers in coastal waters are detrimental to marine ecosystems. Total sediment deposits have almost tripled because of such human activities as deforestation and agriculture. Nutrient pollution is currently the gravest threat in this field. This is caused mainly by intensive agriculture, and has led to widespread eutrophication of the seas. The worst problem in terms of coastal pollution is therefore over-fertilisation with nitrates and phosphor. These substances are mainly caused by sewage, agriculture and erosion. Land-based sources are responsible for 70 to 80% of all ocean pollution, a phenomenon which has already taken on alarming dimensions at regional level. One of the consequences of over-fertilisation is algal bloom, ie a massive proliferation of seaweed which in turn can lead to extermination of fish and other living creatures. Even though concentrations of such organic chemicals as DDT and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) have decreased in recent years, they are still verifiably present. Heavy metals and synthetic organic compounds are absorbed by marine organisms through the food chain and may cause pathological anomalies and tumours. The food chain also conveys such toxins into the human body.

37.       Preventive action is required in order to halt the general destruction of the marine environment. Prevention includes ecological compatibility testing, environment-friendly production methods, recycling, waste assessment and minimisation, construction or expansion of sewage plants, quality criteria for appropriate handling of hazardous substances and a proactive policy to prevent harmful impacts from the air, land and water. Such a strategy must also include improving coastal residential areas and the integrated management and development of coastal regions.

c.       Dumping at sea

38.       Direct dumping of toxic and radioactive waste from special ships constitutes a special case of marine pollution from land-based sources. This dumping procedure has been systematically implemented over the last two decades as a means of disposing of industrial waste and sewage sludge. Direct discharges can raise particular problems if they occur in the vicinity of ports or tourist centres. Since the adoption of the London Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter, the dumping of mercury, cadmium, various kinds of mineral oil, biological and chemical warfare agents and highly radioactive materials has been strictly prohibited because of their specific threat to marine organisms. In accordance with the resolutions adopted at the 16th Conference of states party to the London Dumping Convention, refuse incineration at sea and discharge of slightly radioactive substances have been banned since February 1994. Dumping of industrial waste at sea was halted in 1995.

39.       However, given that ship owners and flag-states have virtually disregarded the regulations issued to date, the legal consequences of such infringements should be intensified in conformity with the provisions of the Convention on the Law of the Sea, and owner liability should be enshrined in international legislation.

d       Impairment to the seas and marine habitats through fishing and over-fishing

40.       Exploitation of living marine resources is the oldest human utilisation of the sea. In addition to the Convention on the Law of the Sea, which explicitly includes protection of threatened species in its environmental protection provisions [Article 164 (5)], the Convention on Biological Diversity, which came into force in December 1993, also includes marine organisms in the concept of biological diversity (Article 2).

41.       Given the intimate link between the situation of fish populations and the quality of the marine environment, very close attention should be paid to this policy area. Sea fisheries and aquaculture in inshore waters depend on the marine ecosystem, and in turn affect their environment. Fisheries management and protection of the ecosystem on which it depends must therefore go hand in hand. Intensive fishing can lead to far-reaching interference with such a system. Fishing has a direct effect on the commercially exploited target stocks. In addition to direct effects on these stocks, fisheries also affect other fish and also seabirds, marine mammals, reptiles and organisms which live on the seabed and may be injured or killed by fishing gear. During the breeding and rearing season seabirds are particularly vulnerable to fluctuating or decreasing prey availability because of their increased energy needs and their limited sortie radius. For instance, there has been a whole series of cases over the past 40 years where drops in seabird populations have obviously been a direct result of over-fishing of their usual prey. So it is an alarming prospect if over-fishing leads to food shortages in the fairly long term and the condition of older birds so deteriorates as to make increased winter mortality inevitable. The nightmare scenario for seabird and marine mammal populations is if natural fluctuations and over-fishing combine in the short term to wipe out supplies of their prey.

42.       Some seafloors and benthic plants and animals constitute important nurseries of eggs, larvae and young animals. The overwhelming majority of such animal species (98%) live on the seabed (benthic species), with the other 2% living in the water column (pelagic species). Damage caused to the seabed by fishing gear can affect the whole ecosystem. Some benthic organisms form coherent populations and provide the basis for settlement of a series of living creatures which thus stabilise the subsurface, so that any damage to them is liable to lead to erosion of the deeper strata. Any disruption here can cause considerable damage. In 1991 the ICES Study Group on Ecosystem Effects of Fishing Activities produced a detailed list of the effects of fishing on the marine environment:

43.       Further indirect and long-term effects of fishing are caused by altered feeding relations among the different species and possible modification of the genetic composition of fish populations through sustained selective catches (eg fast-growing individuals). Moreover, aquaculture is a potential threat to the environment because of the danger of transmission of farm-fish diseases to wild fish populations.

7.       Marine environment and climate changes

44.       Later research shows that marine organisms are potentially endangered by increased ultraviolet radiation due to modifications of the ozone layer in the stratosphere. It particularly affects phytoplankton, which are unicellular algae and act as primary producers sustaining the existence of the primary and secondary user organisms viz zooplankton, fish, birds and marine mammals, up to and including man. Since marine algae, unlike terrestrial plants, possess no defence mechanisms against ultraviolet light, they can be harmed by even limited exposures. Elimination of phytoplankton can also reduce the nutritional basis of the organisms that feed on them. In addition, direct damage by ultraviolet rays can occur, and is particularly dangerous to immature fish.

45.       The anthropogenic greenhouse effect can also bring about serious modifications of marine ecosystems. Rise in sea level alters the coastal areas together with their biological communities. Displacement of the climatic belt with its rainfall distribution has an influence on the productivity of marine ecosystems. Temperature rise in the surface water or increasingly intense UV B radiation can also heighten the effects of chemical pollution of the sea.

46.       On balance, it is to be feared that damage to the marine ecosystems may impair the carbon-absorbing property of the oceans, and retroactively speed up the greenhouse effect. This interconnection was seriously taken into account in the Framework Convention on Climate Change: Article 4.1.d requires the Contracting States to co-operate in preserving and enhancing sinks and reservoirs of greenhouse gases, including biomass and oceans. However, the convention contains no concrete commitment to protection of the marine environment. Establishing this link should be a task for future research.

47.       Climatically determined modifications of major ecosystems can cause drastic fluctuations in fish population. It is foreseeable that in future man-made climate changes may alter the physical environment of fish populations so radically that significant changes in the population structures would result. The more pronounced atmospheric pressure differential between land and sea due to global warming could cause stronger seaward currents which would carry fish ova and larvae into inhospitable areas far from the coast and prevent replenishment of stocks.

48.       Many more uncertainties are associated with climate change and especially with rise in sea level. A minimal rise may do significant damage in low-lying coastal regions. International co-operation with the aim of combating climate change and rise in sea level needs to be strengthened. Part of this co-operation is to develop recognised methods for evaluating the sensitivity of coastal areas and to devise containment strategies, particularly for priority zones such as low-lying, threatened coastal areas.

49.       The breakdown of the ozone layer and the related phenomenon of increasing penetration of ultraviolet light have prompted more intensive research activity in recent years concerning possible damage to marine life. Laboratory and field experiments proved the injuriousness to phytoplankton of the UV B radiation which, as a result of ozone depletion, penetrates more massively to the earth’s surface and the upper water levels. The marine environment is vulnerable and reacts with great sensitivity to climatic and atmospheric changes. A systematic listing of marine environment parameters is needed in order to apply integrated management concepts and forecast the effects on living marine resources and the marine environment of global climate changes and specific phenomena occurring in the atmosphere, such as breakdown of the ozone layer.

8.       New assignments for fisheries research

50.       Even today, we are very ignorant of many biological communities and symbioses in the sea. Each year some 50 new fish species are discovered. Thus, in fisheries matters more than elsewhere, research is faced with a challenge when it comes to elucidating the living conditions and production requirements of exploited fish populations. Research assignments have changed to keep pace with the potential of modern high-tech fishing. Many questions are still open as regards the effects of fishing and other human influences on the sea and on fish, including the question of the possibilities for long-term sustainability of marine resources and ecosystems.

51.       Protection of the marine environment should be integrated with environment policies, social polices and development policies at national level. In the process, efforts of a preventive, precautionary and anticipatory nature should be encouraged with the aim of averting impairment of the marine environment and reducing the danger of lasting and, most importantly, irreversible consequential damage. Economic incentives to the use of clean technologies should be developed to check damage to the coastal and marine environment; also to be developed are possibilities for consultation about technologies based on the latest scientific information for combating the main forms of land-based pollution of the marine environment. Regulation and surveillance programmes to control effluent discharges and emissions, with scope for development and application of control and recovery techniques, must be introduced and extended. Promotion of environmental compatibility testing should be pursued as a contribution to the assurance of adequate environmental quality.

52.       Conventions on navigation aimed at controlling pollution from shipping should be ratified and enforced so that damage to the marine environment can be averted, reduced and controlled.

53.       Existing measures to control discharges and emissions, and provisions for reducing the danger of accidents and spills caused by cargo ships, should be examined, and the need for further measures should be taken into consideration.

9.       Fish consumption and consumer protection

54.       In the framework of international agreements on marine conservation, investigations are being conducted on the concentrations of selected metals and organic compounds in sea water, shellfish and bony fish. Concentrations of lipohilic organic residues in the edible part of our table fish, that is in fish as a foodstuff, generally measure well below the limit values stipulated in the orders on maximum quantities of harmful substances and residues6. The same applies to the concentrations in sea crustaceans and molluscs. Despite the severe environmental strain on the oceans and the constant inputs of harmful substances into aquatic systems, at the present time fish is available to the consumer as a healthy and only minimally affected food. However, if the quality of this foodstuff is to be maintained in the future, efforts to limit discharges of harmful substances into the oceans must be increased at all levels.

55.       The alarming state of seas and fish populations constitutes a threat to availability of fish as a foodstuff. The European Union surely has an interest in ensuring that the fish, crustaceans and molluscs which it markets and processes into fish products are obtained by means of fishing activity which is as environmentally safe and precautionary as possible.

56.       Up to now consumers have had virtually no opportunity to make an informed buying decision against fish and fish products derived from ecologically dubious catching operations. In order to achieve ecologically sustainable fishing in the long term, transparency concerning products is necessary. It is important for the fish industry to be induced by pressure of public opinion to have the requisite details for responsible buying decisions printed on packages. In order to achieve this aim, there should be a number of agreed procedures on the part of the vendor, who should certify that the fish supplied originates from sea areas for which there are permissible catch quotas (TAC - Total Allowable Catches)7 or comparable international/national standards. Better information and transparency for consumers should be ensured by indicating on the packaging of packed goods the area of capture (fishery or aquaculture), with the producer’s telephone number to enable consumers to enquire about catching methods for instance. In the case of fresh bulk goods, the purchaser can obtain information from the sales staff. These outlines are in keeping with the requirements for the achievement of fishing geared to preservation of stocks, published by FAO in the Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries.

10.       International co-operation and international agreements

“Fisheries monitoring and control are at the heart of the Common Fisheries Policy”

(Commissioner Franz Fischler, responsible for Agriculture, Rural Development and Fisheries)

57.       Enforcement of the fisheries regulations of the European states is very disparate and often insufficient. One of the chief weaknesses concerns the differing control measures taken by states. As a result, there are considerable divergences in the enforcement of legal provisions, prosecution procedures and fines. The same offences can thus incur differing penalties.

58.       Sustainable long-term use of living marine resources cannot consist in free access to those resources. Fishing has the intrinsic shortcoming of destroying its very foundation through continual development of capacity and resultant over-fishing. In these circumstances, the legislator is called upon to apply both quotas and controls stringently. The European fishing industry could manage for a long time with the very resistant and productive fish stocks if the oversized fleet and the excessive catching capacity were first reduced. With an adapted fleet, transformation from pure exploitation to planned use would be possible.

59.       Responsibility for applying fishery policy provisions in their territorial waters and territories rests with the member states. They should ensure that vessels flying their flags meet the applicable provisions in each area of operation. This calls for a network of services for surveillance and control of fishing activities, landings and marketing, administrative supervision of structural policy measures and other measures, and procedures for prosecution and punishment of offences.

60.       In order to achieve these aims, it is necessary to have universal co-ordination and co-operation in respect of landlocked and semi-landlocked seas and between sub-regional, regional and general inter-state fisheries organisations.

61.       Regulations governing fishing on the high seas in international waters can only be agreed multilaterally under the international law of the sea. Their effectiveness depends on the states concerned voluntarily placing themselves under the regulations. International law of the sea does not permit the imposition of binding prohibitions and sanctions on states which do not comply. Consequently, it is a matter of prompting as many fishing nations as possible to accede to multilateral agreements relating to their own high seas fisheries or, where they are unwilling to do so, at least getting them to abide by the provisions laid down in such agreements. In addition, the international measures for management of stocks and for protection of the marine environment at regional level should be more fully harmonised. Almost 200 international organisations deal with marine environment policy at present. These specialised organisations make a significant contribution to the preparation of regional programmes, and should be more systematically consulted in future.

11.       The fishing sector in the Baltic Sea region

62.       The Baltic Sea is a small, semi-landlocked arm of the Atlantic Ocean, very shallow with an average depth of 55m. With the Kattegat, it covers an area of about 450 000 km2, and its volume of water amounts to some 21 700 km3. Considering that the masses of water in the Baltic as a whole are interchanged as frequently as 4 to 25 times per year (up to 40 times according to other estimates), in many respects the Baltic evidently has the character of a large lake rather than a sea.

63.       These natural characteristics of the Baltic immediately highlight its special ecological sensitivity. With the added fact that its basin supports a population of over 70 million in highly industrialised states practising intensive agriculture, there is a clear danger of an ecological breakdown in this major marine ecosystem. In fact bottom-dwelling fauna have been virtually eliminated from half the floor of the central Baltic, a total area of 100 000 km2. Pollution from the land makes up a significant proportion of the overall load of pollutants in the Baltic. This pollution accounts for over 56% of the nitrogen input; the remaining 44% is of atmospheric origin. Land-based sources take a share of over 98% in the oil pollution.

a.       Legal provisions and fishery policy

64.       Common scientific exploration of the Baltic Sea by the riparian states dates back to the early 20th century. In the framework of the International Council for Exploration of the Seas (ICES), founded in 1902 in Copenhagen at the behest of the Scandinavian countries and Germany, common surveys were conducted and uniform measuring stations were agreed upon during the very same year8. The ICES survived the break in co-operation during the first and second world wars, and its revival was possible as from 1945. After the contractual re-founding of the ICES in 1964, that year and in 1969-70 two international expeditions were conducted with numerous research ships. The results included the finding that “the Baltic is one of the most polluted seas on earth”9.

65.       In August 1970, representatives of the Baltic Sea states met for the first time at a conference which addressed issues of combating oil pollution in the Baltic Sea. After the Gdansk Convention for the protection of the living resources of the Baltic Sea was concluded in October 1973, capture of the main Baltic fish species was regulated by the International Baltic Sea Fishery Commission (IBSFC) which had by then been set up with its headquarters in Warsaw. ICES data relating to the estimation of individual fish populations in the Baltic provide a scientific basis.

66.       Proceeding from a Finnish draft submitted to a conference of government experts in Helsinki, a satisfactory result was achieved as early as March 1974 in the form of a Convention on the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea Area (Helsinki Agreement)10 which was approved and signed by the diplomatic conference in Helsinki from 18 to 22 March 1974 and came into force in 1980.

67.       The Baltic Marine Environment Protection Commission (HELCOM) produces five-yearly assessments of the state of the Baltic Sea. The third such report for the period 1989-1993 established that for phosphorus derivatives, success had been achieved in reaching the 50% reduction target applying to input of specified substances, set in 1988 by the environment ministers of the HELCOM contracting states. However, no clear trend in contamination by nitrogen is discernible as yet.

Baltic Sea Agenda 21

68.       At the session of the Council of the Baltic Sea States on 22 and 23 June 1998, the foreign ministers of the coastal states approved an Agenda 21 for the Baltic Sea Region - Baltic 21. This was the world’s first regional Agenda 21 to be established in the framework of United Nations AGENDA 21, and arose in the context of Baltic Sea co-operation pursuant to a decision of the heads of government of the Baltic Sea states in Visby (Sweden) in May 1996. Important points of the agenda are direct responsibility of agents in the region and thorough use of existing co-operation structures and processes such as the Helsinki Commission (HELCOM). In addition, Baltic 21 is to create the conditions for stronger European Union involvement in the region, comparable to the extensive promotion of the Mediterranean region.

69.       Referring to a comprehensive definition of the sustainable development objectives, this Agenda 21 identifies areas where the integration of environmental protection into the policy field is deficient, and these include fisheries policy. It contains proposals for practical measures to solve environmental problems and for their implementation under a detailed action programme. The programme’s time-schedule extends to the year 2030. A provisional Secretariat based in Stockholm provides administrative support for these activities.

b.       Fish populations and catch quotas

70.       The chief Baltic Sea fishing methods are bottom trawling and set nets for cod, pelagic trawling for herring and sprat, and drift nets, baskets and long lines for salmon. The Advisory Committee for Fishery Management (ACFM) of the International Council for Exploration of the Seas (ICES) annually compiles the results of population surveys, makes recommendations to the fishery organisations on management of each fish population, and arrives at multilateral agreements on utilisation of Baltic Sea fisheries resources. The most important populations in the Baltic Sea at present are cod and herring. Total allowable catch figures (TAC) are stipulated annually for Baltic Sea stocks of cod, herring, salmon and sprat. The share of the catch allocated to the European Union is apportioned among its Baltic Member States by the EU Council of Ministers for fisheries.

71.       At the annual session of the IBSFC from 6 to 10 September 1999 in Warsaw, in which all Baltic Sea riparian states participated (European Union, Poland, Russia, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania), the Total Allowable Catches for the year 2000 were established. For the sake of maintaining stocks, the TACs for cod, herring and sprat were reduced. The ban on taking cod in summer from 1 July to 20 August was confirmed.

72.       A red list of endangered fish species in the Baltic Sea classes 38% of its indigenous species as threatened or extinct. Twelve percent of kelps are already extinct and a further 9% threatened. A minimal proportion of the fish species affected by over-fishing reaches the consumer’s table; the bulk of these fish end up in the fishermen’s nets as a by-catch and are thrown back, usually dead. Sea birds and marine mammals are also victims of fishing. Between 1982 and 1988, in the Kattegat alone, 25 000 Common Murres (sea birds) met their ends in set nets. Germany acknowledges that basically all populations in the Baltic Sea are threatened, whether cod, herring, mackerel, plaice or sole.

73.       Fish landings from the Baltic Sea in the riparian states increased overall from about 524 000 to 866 000 tonnes between 1991 and 1996. This contrasted with a decline in salmon catches (from about 2 400 to 1 600 tonnes) and herring catches (from about 279 000 to 253 000 tonnes) and an increase in catches of sprats (from about 103 000 to 172 000 tonnes).

1.       Baltic Cod

74.       Total catches of cod in the Baltic Sea have fluctuated since 1965 between 441 000 tonnes (1984) and barely 60 000 tonnes (1993). The average catch over this period amounted to 59 500 tonnes per year. The largest catches were taken by Denmark, Poland and Germany, respectively averaging 63 000, 57 000 and 28 000 tonnes per year. However, from 1992 onwards their respective average catch sizes declined to 20 000, 12 000 and 6 000 tonnes per year.

75.       Long-term safeguarding of the cod population is only possible through continued reduction of the fishing effort. For 1995 and 1996, the ACFM (Advisory Committee on Fishery Management of the International Council for Exploration of the Seas) recommended reducing it by at least 30% compared to 1994.

76.       Baltic cod resources are an important economic quantity for the inshore fishing industry of the riparian states. In the western riparian states of Denmark, Germany and Sweden, cod is at present the chief Baltic fish of commercial importance. Its importance to the fishing sectors of the eastern riparian states has also greatly increased in the last ten years. It is of secondary importance to fisheries only in Finland and Estonia because of its normally sparse and only exceptionally more prolific occurrence in their waters.

77.       The competent ICES working group, in one of its earliest proceedings, divided Baltic cod into two population units (western and eastern) on the ground of differing biological characteristics. Separate estimates of population strength were made for each unit. Significant differences in the trend of yields can be observed between the two zones of the Baltic, and the total yield is determined chiefly by the proportion caught in the eastern Baltic.

78.       The regulation of catches applied by the International Baltic Sea Fishery Commission has so far been confined to an annual cod quota (TAC) for the Baltic Sea as a whole and its apportionment according to international (EU) and national fishing zones. This procedure totally disregards the biological conditions of the Baltic, where cod form two independent populations displaying different developmental tendencies. A general TAC cannot take these differences into account, nor consequently achieve the actual objective of sustainable use. Regulation of fishing on the basis of two marine zones requires greater outlay in administrative and organisational terms, nevertheless justified in the medium term and indeed only in the long term by more constant results. The stocks of adult cod in each population unit continue to be over-exploited. The decline in stock and catches began in about 1984 and persisted until 1992. The size of fishing fleets was not reduced proportionally, with the result that the mortality induced by fishing rose as the population fell.

79.       Cod have come ahead since 1990 because of their value as a “staple” for domestic inshore fishing. The quota for 1998 was not achieved because the catchable stock maturing each year as from 1993/1994 was largely exhausted by the end of 1997. No notable regeneration is or has been apparent in the cod population of the central Baltic. In the western zone too, a significant low in catches occurred between 1988 and 1993. Since 1992 the cod fishing yield figures have been unreliable because of misreporting. Evaluations of catches by scientific vessels do not suffice for issuing recommendations on permissible maximum catch sizes as stipulated in the EU Council of Ministers for fisheries.

80.       After a decline in total resources to 20-25 thousand tonnes in 1991/92, the present stock is again estimated at about 70 000 tonnes. The current state of the cod population in the Baltic Sea is nevertheless judged unfavourable, compared to the 1980s, by the experts of the International Council for Exploration of the Seas. Scientists attribute the population decline to the combined effect of over-fishing, bad regeneration years and unfavourable environmental conditions. Immediate measures to preserve the population from complete collapse are therefore necessary even though the 1993 and 1994 breeding years turned out better than expected.

81.       From 1994 onwards some international experiments to improve the selectiveness of catches were made. The very dissimilar experimental findings of the various nations concerning the effect of the stipulated increase in cod-end mesh dimensions, or of alternative designs for cod-ends, indicate that an adequate range of partial solutions has indeed been found by means of these alterations, but no generally acceptable solution. Investigations of this kind make heavy demands on time as well as human and financial resources. National institutions and research budgets could be overstrained in view of these demands. The situation is thus a perfect example of the need to plan and conduct an international project in which the European Union, as the largest riparian entity, is prevailed upon to be the financier.

2.       Baltic herring and sprat

82.       Aggregate landings of herring have dwindled alarmingly over the last 23 years, from 482 000 to 38 000 tonnes in 1996. Sprat catches attained a record high of 485 000 tonnes in 1996. The already high 1995 level was exceeded by 24% in 1996. Herring are caught during the spawning season with traps and set nets inshore and in the open sea with single or multiple trawls. Baltic herring stocks show no signs of over-fishing as yet. Populations are assessed as comparatively stable and fishing prospects as favourable. Unfavourable marketing conditions for herring used to reflect the decline of landings for human consumption, but landings of herring and sprat for industrial processing (fish meal) have risen significantly in recent years. In the countries on the eastern side of the Baltic, sprat are landed primarily for human consumption, in the western part chiefly for producing fish meal and oil.

83.       Against a background of very low mortality rates due to fishing and large known occurrences of herring and sprat in the central Baltic, Sweden has built up an industrial fishing operation (meal and oil) in recent years as an alternative to the depressed cod fishery. The main problem of intensive industrial fishing is the usually heavy inroads on young stock. The future of Baltic herring populations depends largely on successful international regulation of fishing, applying to industrial as well as food fishing and above all prohibiting the taking of juvenile fish. Maintenance of spawning grounds at the necessary standard of quality is a prerequisite for the survival of the populations of Baltic herrings that spawn early in the year in shallow coastal waters. Maintenance of these spawning grounds by preventing destruction of the environment is crucial to the continued existence of the herring fishery in the western Baltic, the Kattegat and parts of the Skagerrak.

3.       Baltic salmon

84.       The state of the salmon population in the Baltic Sea is unreservedly assessed as critical. The ACFM (Advisory Committee for Fishery Management of the International Council for Exploration of the Seas) recommended as early as 1995 that, in order to preserve the wild salmon populations, offshore and inshore fishing should be stopped in 1996.

85.       Salmon are caught with drift nets and long lines during the period when they feed out at sea, and along the coast in traps when they make their spawning run. The death rate of marine mammals due to drift net fishing for salmon in the Baltic Sea, though not insignificant in the 1950s and 60s, is limited today. The evident cause of this is the marked decline of seals and Harbour Porpoises, the only small cetacean native to the Baltic. In the 1980s and 90s they were spotted occasionally near the coasts in the central Baltic (that is outside drift net salmon fishing grounds). One of the chief causes of their decline presumably lies in pollution of the Baltic with noxious substances, especially in the 1960s and 70s, and high concentration of these substances in their bodies which, as proven with seals, can severely impair fertility.

86.       A system set up as part of a research and development programme in Germany for voluntary reporting by fishermen of by-catches made in set net fishing disclosed the following figures for accidentally caught specimens of small cetaceans: 20 in 1990, 26 in 1991, 7 in 1992, 6 in 1993 and 11 in 1994.

c.       Fishing enterprises and their promotion

87.       Lasting improvement of the sea fishery position, having regard to increasingly stringent environmental, health and quality requirements, can only be expected if landing facilities are optimised as well as developing an efficient modern fishing fleet. In recent years, ever more coastal municipalities have realised the importance of sea fishing for the economic revival of coastal regions and are investing in redevelopment and modernisation of their fishing ports.

88.       As well as encouraging structural improvement measures in the sea fishing sector (fishing fleets and ports), a necessary goal in coastal regions strongly marked by fishing is to enhance the socio-economic situation while more energetically promoting activities related to fishing as alternative economic activities (use of possibilities for combining fishing with coastal tourism). The incipient modernisation of the economy in the Russian Federation, the Baltic countries and Poland also affords the opportunity to de-link environmental pollution and the expected high economic growth. This opportunity must be exploited through timely and broad-based consideration of environmental aspects in governmental, administrative and private-sector decisions on planning and investment.

d.       Environmental situation

89.       The Helsinki Commission instituted the international action programme for the Baltic Sea in 1992. All HELCOM contracting parties are involved in its implementation, as well as countries in the sphere of influence of the Baltic. This programme, planned over 20 years with a predicted total funding level of 18 thousand million ECU, aims to further the rehabilitation of the Baltic Sea, urgently needed from the ecological standpoint, by means of targeted measures. The Baltic Sea is in a perilous condition. In addition to recorded discharges of harmful substances from industry and deficient or lacking purification plants, pollutants of agricultural or atmospheric origin are critical issues. Estimates point to less inflow from the land but increasing atmospheric fallout.

90.       Thus the multiple assaults made on the Baltic Sea through human agency are due on the one hand to the inroads of fishing and on the other hand to discharges produced by urbanisation, industrialisation and intensification of agriculture in the freshwater catchments, settled by some 80 million people. Global environmental transformations can be expected to have particularly severe effects within ecosystems that are already damaged or those which are more fragile than others because of their peculiarities, and both these conditions particularly apply to the Baltic Sea.

91.       In the Baltic sea there are clear indications of eutrophication by nutrients washed into it from the land and also carried by the atmosphere. The latter vector principally involves nitrogenous substances. Significant proportions of nitrogen pollution in the Baltic Sea originating from the atmosphere are traced to Germany (38%), Poland (14%), the former USSR (13%), Denmark and the United Kingdom (7% each), France and Sweden (5% each), the Netherlands (4%), the former Czechoslovakia and Finland (3% each), Belgium (2%) and Norway, Hungary, Austria and Romania with not more than 1% each.

92.       Reduction of atmospheric and waterborne nitrogen input is possible through appropriate measures in agriculture and elsewhere (eg fertilisation in harmony with seasonal requirements, and reduction of large-scale animal husbandry and use of liquid manure), the energy sector and transport.

93.       The greater part (over 50%) of the 21-66 thousand tonnes of oil deposited in the Baltic Sea annually according to HELCOM estimates is derived from land-based effluents brought by rivers as well as by direct urban drainage. The IMO has classified the Baltic as a particularly sensitive area with regard to pollution. This has led to much stricter guidelines in respect of pollution from ships. The absolute prohibition of tank cleansing operations at sea, limits on the oil content of ballast water, progressive development of surveillance measures with air support and development of disposal facilities in harbours have resulted in the present gradual decrease of “navigational” oil pollution.

e.       Challenges for Europe

94.       German reunification and the political opening-up of the former Eastern bloc have not only offered scientists from all Baltic riparian states new opportunities and prospects for research, but have also increased the chances of achieving common goals more rapidly and effectively through a generally agreed procedure. Baltic Sea research demands enhanced international co-operation. The long-term goals and priorities of a research concept for the Baltic Sea further the interests of all residents of the region.

95.       The Mediterranean and Baltic regions are each of special significance to the EU which frames the respective policies. EU Mediterranean policy relies on intensification of the EU’s bilateral relations with the individual Mediterranean partners, and on multilateral (regional) co-operation, whereas the aim of Baltic Sea policy is to integrate the eastern riparian states (Russia excepted). In this way, by contrast with the Mediterranean, the Baltic is turning into an “EU inland sea”.

96.       The Common Fisheries Policy plays an important role in the European Union, dealing with the biological, economic and social aspects of fisheries. In the context of European co-operation, fisheries-related activities must be managed in such a way that fish stocks are regularly renewed and the marine ecosystem is protected. The threat of pollution in the area makes measures to preserve stocks an urgent necessity for the Baltic Sea. Even if, as scientific studies show, the fish in the Baltic pose no threat to people’s health and are fit for consumption, a fundamental, long-term improvement in the state of the ecosystem is still required. One of the guiding principles for the protection of marine life in the Baltic must be the exploitation and preservation of biological diversity on a viable and sustainable basis. It should be the European Union’s aim to preserve stocks while at the same time ensuring the future of the fishing industry. To help fishermen to convert to appropriate fishing methods, the European Union must work together with the member states to adapt fishing vessels accordingly. In this context, it is crucially important that the relevant measures be implemented by all concerned, without exception. Monitoring of compliance with rules is a crucial factor in efficient fisheries management. Fishing enterprises do not just provide food, they also provide much needed jobs in coastal areas and contribute to the economic and social welfare of the EU regions dependent on fisheries. Failure to comply with established rules would lead to overfishing, endanger commercially exploited stocks, and eventually lead to the collapse of the entire industry. The EU member states must fully honour their obligation to ensure that the rules are implemented in their territorial waters. Consideration should also be given to the possibility of increased co-operation between member states, which is the key to greater transparency and justice, and hence to improved compliance with the rules governing fisheries.

97.       Preserving existing fish stocks and striking a better balance between fleet capacities and fish resources are the biggest challenges now facing the European fisheries sector, national and European decision-makers, and fishermen themselves. The fishing industry has the best chance of surviving if it establishes workable, internationally applicable common rules, provided that real pressure can be brought to bear on those who break them. Precisely because of the geographical location of the Baltic Sea, with its numerous riparian states, it is clear that protection of the marine environment can only be ensured at international level and through close co-operation between those states.

12.       The fishing sector in the Mediterranean region

98.       The Mediterranean, owing to its geographical extent, forms an intercontinental body of water separating Europe, Asia and Africa. It has a surface area of 3.02 million km2, a volume of 4.38 million cubic kilometres, and an average depth of 1 450 metres. There are throughways to the Indian Ocean via the Suez Canal and to the Atlantic Ocean via the 14 kilometre wide Strait of Gibraltar. In addition, the Mediterranean incorporates the Ligurian Sea, the Tyrrhenian Sea, the Adriatic, the Ionian Sea and the Aegean. Apart from a high salinity surpassed only by the Red Sea and the Dead Sea, the Mediterranean is typified chiefly by its low concentration of nutrients.

99.       The Mediterranean is one of the most important waterways on earth and, because of the mild climatic conditions, the ideal bathing and leisure destination for millions of visitors from Europe and beyond. For thousands of years, this sea has also performed vital functions for all inhabitants of the 20 000 km coastline and provided them with nourishment and employment. Since fish populations living in a natural state are renewed at a rate ordained by nature, delivery of fish to the market cannot increase infinitely. The limit already seems to have been exceeded in the Mediterranean. The peak year for the Mediterranean and the Black Sea was reached in 1988, and the catch quota dropped 28% by 1992.

a.       Legal provisions and fishery policy

100.       In the 1960s and 70s a series of oil and chemical spills occurred in the Mediterranean, arousing environmental awareness focused on marine protection. The load of pollutants in the Mediterranean is traditionally very high. In 1975 the riparian states agreed on a marine protection plan (MEDAP); this programme is also referred to in certain publications as the MAP (Mediterranean Action Plan), and supported by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). It was the world’s first conservation programme to be set up by the riparian states. On 16 February 1976 the Barcelona Convention for the Protection of the Mediterranean Sea was ratified and approved by 17 states (except Albania). The Mediterranean region was evaluated by the United Nations Environment Programme as a high-priority area in relation to requisite measures. Also in 1975, dumping of waste at sea was regulated under the Dumping Protocol to the Barcelona Convention and a year later in Malta a monitoring centre was brought into being, providing educational, informational and emergency services as well as waste collection points in the harbour. Although MEDAP did the Mediterranean great service and has counteracted further worsening of the environmental situation, the latter can by no means be considered satisfactory. In 1980 the Land-Based Sources Protocol, dealing with land-based pollution of the Mediterranean, was approved and signed. In addition to control of air pollution and of sewage discharge into rivers, it established upper limits for drainage into the sea of industrial, domestic and agricultural effluents.

101.       The success of this treaty must nevertheless be judged conservatively. The EEC Regulation of 1 June 1992 against large-scale drift net fishing continues to be blatantly infringed, and offenders include vessels from the Far East. According to the findings of IWC and the EU Scientific and Technical Research Committee on fisheries, significant incidental captures of dolphins and other cetaceans occur in drift netting of swordfish and tuna in the Mediterranean with illegal nets, ie longer than the permitted 2.5 km.

102.       Nonetheless, an important result is that the majority of agreements are periodically examined and adapted, and over the last few years the provisions have been considerably tightened.

b.       Fish populations and catch quotas

103.       The main source of information on fish populations in the Mediterranean is the work conducted by the FAO, and in particular by its General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean (GFCM). In 1999, according to FAO statistics, catches in the “Mediterranean and Black Sea” zone totalled 1 536 148 tonnes (as against 1 701 273 tonnes in 1995).

104.       The Mediterranean is characterised by an ecological and biological diversity which requires sophisticated methods when drawing up an overview of the whole basin. There are few data and studies available for an accurate and reliable assessment of the situation of the resources. They often relate exclusively to specific geographical areas, especially the north and west of the Mediterranean basin.

105.       However, the fact is that the Mediterranean is being overexploited. In addition to overfishing, the lack of adequate and effective controls has allowed many cases of unlawful, unregulated and undeclared fishing and operations by boats flying flags of convenience to go unchecked.

106.       The specific features of the Mediterranean region are such that fishing is mainly coastal and non-industrial, except where migratory species (eg tuna) are concerned. The 4 Member States of the European Union with Mediterranean coastlines operate 47 000 vessels (50% of the total European Community fleet), effecting a total annual catch of 1 million tonnes (15% of total Community production). The Community, which is a member of the GFCM, has introduced a number of conservation measures (including prohibiting certain fishing techniques and methods, minimum mesh sizes for some types of nets and minimum sizes for certain fish species). The Council of the European Union recently issued a Regulation on technical measures for the conservation of marine resources in the Mediterranean11.

107.       The GFCM Scientific Advisory Committee (SAC) has analysed all available scientific information in the region for the period 1985-1999, covering the eight most important demersal and small pelagic species (hake, red mullet, striped red mullet, blue whiting, red shrimp, anchovy, sardine and sardinella). Three large species of pelagic (bluefin tuna, swordfish and albacore) have also been studied. Drawing on this analysis, the SAC has detected a distinct increase in overfishing of some demersal species (especially the hake), and has also noted the risk of recruitment overfishing of anchovy12.


108.       The following list has been drawn up of priority species: Merluccius merluccius, Micromesistius poutassou, Merlangius merlangus, Mullus barbatus, Mullus surmuletus, Pagellus erythrinus, Boops boops, Psetta maxima, Engraulis encrasicolus, Sardina pichardus, Sardinella aurita, Sprattus sprattus, Trachurus trachurus, Trachurus mediterraneus, Thunnus thynnus, Thunnus alalunga , Xiphias gladius, Coryphaena hippurus, Aristeomorpha foliacea, Aristeus antennatus, Parapenaeus longirostris, Nephrops norvegicus and Eledone cirrhosa.

109.       The same report mentions the recommendations on stocks and fishing of small pelagic and demersal species. Furthermore, in order to secure a more accurate assessment of the situation of the various different stocks, the SAC has recommended dividing up the Mediterranean (FAO Zone 37 into 30 distinct geographical management units.

110.       At its latest meeting (Ischia, 10-13 September 2001) the GFCM considered the SAC’s recommendations on different species in different areas. The small pelagic species in question are the anchovy (engraulis encrasicolus) in the northern and central Adriatic, the horse mackerel (trachurus trachurus) in the central Aegean and the bogue (boops boops), also in the central Aegean. The demersal species concerned are the hake (merluccius merluccius) in the Gulf of Lions, the eastern Ligurian, the northern Tyrrhenian and the Aegean sea, the red mullet (mullus barbatus) in the southern Ligurian, the northern Tyrrhenian and the Aegean sea, and the red shrimp (aristeus antennatus) in the Balearics and the Gulf of Alicante. Where the large pelagic species are concerned, it advocated research into the bluefin tuna and the swordfish.

111.       In connection with stock assessment, the GFCM recommended standardising fishing effort measurements (boats’ fishing power) and initiating research activities to identify and control environmental factors potentially influencing fishing stocks. Where both small pelagics and demersals are concerned, further research is recommended on the basis, inter alia, of independent information sources, and indirect assessment methods (eg analysing commercial catches) might also be used.

112.       Despite the many ad hoc studies available, it is nevertheless acknowledged that a substantial research effort is still urgently needed in order to improve scientific opinions and to enable appropriate management measures to be proposed and adopted. It is accordingly suggested that the quality and coverage of data and statistics should be updated and improved, the number and frequency of assessment studies increased and more in-depth studies conducted of the relationship between environment and resources. Moreover, there is also a recognised need for sustainability indicators (including biomass and mortality) and reference values for interpreting temporal variations13.

113.       The Mediterranean should be a priority area for implementing the precautionary approach advocated by the Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries (FAO, 1995) for the conservation, management and exploitation of living aquatic resources (Art. 7.5). The Code stipulates that “conservation and management decisions for fisheries should be based on the best scientific evidence available…” (Art. 6.4), and that “… the absence of adequate scientific information should not be used as a reason for postponing or failing to take conservation and management measures” (Art. 7.5.1). This is why the SAC and the GFCM have recommended developing scientific studies and statistical data in the Mediterranean regions14.

c.       Fishing enterprises and their promotion

114.       We have stressed the importance of the (mainly non-industrial) fishing sector in he Mediterranean: almost 50 000 boats and over 100 000 fishermen (40% of total fisheries workers in the European Community) for the 4 Mediterranean Member States of the European Union (France, Greece, Italy and Spain) alone.

115.       Given the restructuring of the sector in a number of Mediterranean countries (job cuts, decreasing or stagnating resources because of overfishing or conservation measures, fleet renovation, effects of competition and competivity, etc), socio-economic support measures are needed in several countries. This mainly applies to the northern Mediterranean countries.

116.       On the other hand, some other countries which have not yet fully tapped the economic and employment potential of the fisheries sector are concentrating on promotional measures aimed at expanding this sector. Such measures vary greatly from country to country.

117.       This is why the ensuing information is confined to the four European Union member countries which comply with common regulations.

118.       The European Community recently adopted Guidelines for the examination of State aid to fisheries and aquaculture15. These guidelines stipulate that the Financial Instrument for Fisheries Guidance, which is one of the Community’s structural funds, provides financial assistance for the structural adaptation necessary to attain the objectives of the common fisheries policy, and that State aid is only justified if it is in accordance with the objectives of both the competition and fisheries policies.

119.       The following are considered compatible: aid for the training of persons working in the fisheries sector and aid in the form of advice to enterprises, aid for the temporary cessation of fishing (social support measures for fishermen and boat owners), aid to investment in the fishing fleet, rescue and restructuring aid for enterprises in difficulty, and aid for setting up joint enterprises.

d.       Environmental situation

120.       Urban and municipal sewage, hundreds of tonnes of toxic and corrosive chemicals of every kind, petroleum or products containing it, and navigation have caused dangerous modifications of water quality in the Mediterranean over the last 40 years. Thus it is not surprising that in the last decade the public in these regions has become more vigilant and acknowledged the important role of ecology. International organisations such as UNEP, FAO and WHO, in close co-operation with the coastal states, as well as grassroots organisations and scientific institutions, have centred their attention on the Mediterranean. The United Nations environmental organisation (UNEP) has listed ten critical areas of the Mediterranean Sea where floods of effluent continually generate the dreaded blooms of noxious algae. Seven of these areas are located near the coasts of the wealthiest Mediterranean countries, France, Italy and Spain.

1.       Water pollution and destruction of marine habitats

121.       The Mediterranean comprises only 0.7% of the world’s sea area but carries 35% of its oil transport. About 220 000 ships per year transit via the Mediterranean including 200-300 oil tankers carrying 30% of the global oil cargo tonnage through the Suez Canal or from the North African forwarding depots to European ports. These vessels illegally discharge some 600 000 tonnes per year of oily ballast into the Mediterranean. Water pollution reveals the common destiny of the countries to the north and south more clearly than anything else.

122.       The total discharge of oil into the Mediterranean was estimated at 635 000 tonnes in 1987, the sources taken into account being the atmosphere (35 000 tonnes), industrial and urban effluents (27 000 tonnes) and tanker and other maritime traffic (330 000 tonnes). Initial trend analyses seem to indicate that after the entry into force of Annex I to the MARPOL 73/78 Convention (2 October 1983), intended to reduce marine pollution caused by tankers and other factors, the danger of pollution accidents already began to decrease.

123.       No comprehensive statistics are available as yet for shipping of other dangerous substances via the Mediterranean. However, transport of liquefied gases, chemicals and compounds such as benzene and its by-products is estimated to be a potential source of pollution entailing serious ecological damage.

124.       Pressure on the ecology of the Mediterranean region has worsened in the last ten years with ongoing industrialisation and rampant population growth. The quantities of pollutants directly discharged into the Mediterranean each year are considerable, including 120 000 tonnes of petroleum residues, 3 800 tonnes of lead, 2 400 tonnes of chromium and 100 tonnes of mercury; agriculture delivers an additional 800 000 tonnes of phosphates, 320 000 tonnes of nitrates and 500 tonnes of pesticides annually.

125.       Initial rough estimates according to source (communities, industry, agriculture, rivers) of the load of pollutants (organic matter, nutrients, metals, pesticides and radioactivity) derived from the continent were published in 1984. According to these estimates, 60-65% of organic pollution comes from coastal sources, with industry accounting for half this amount and sewage and agriculture a quarter each. Conversely, 75-80% of phosphates and nitrates are carried to the sea by rivers draining an area which extends well beyond the coastal region.

126.       In the past, the sewage of the coastal regions was usually discharged into the sea without further treatment. Dilution and biological breakdown of the pollutants were left to the marine ecosystem. Even at present, 85% of sewage from large towns still reaches the sea untreated. However, in the riparian states a growing trend towards the construction of sewage collection and treatment plants is to be noted. Implementation of their plan to equip all coastal towns with submarine drainage systems and/or treatment plants is not to be expected in the immediate future, though. These environmental pressures can only be contained in the long term and at high cost, but at the present time the 120 Mediterranean towns with over 100 000 inhabitants, not to mention the rest, still discharge 80-85% of sewage into the sea without treatment.

127.       Eutrophication of marine ecosystems notoriously has the frequent characteristic of causing vegetable organisms (phytoplankton) to be generated at a higher rate than the organisms which consume them, significantly decreasing the acid content of the water or even starting the formation of hydrogen sulphide, and impairing the structure of the ecosystem especially as regards dominance of endemic species. Increase in the biomass, observable in many parts of the Mediterranean, is symptomatic of this process.

128.       In spring or autumn intensive blooms of phytoplankton occur in the northern Adriatic, and sewage discharges rich in nutrients are responsible for this. Still other examples may be given. Several research projects have established the lasting effects of the ever-increasing pollution of many Mediterranean coastal waters.

129.       Significant strain on the environment also ensues from the mass of tourists, currently averaging 100 million per year and expected to reach 250-400 million in 2025.

2.       Marine environment and climate change

130.       The UNEP/WMO international climate conference in Villach (International Conference on the Assessment of the Role of Carbon Dioxide and of Other Greenhouse Gases in Climate Variations and Associated Impacts) from 9 to 15 October 1995 concluded that before the end of the 21st century, there would be an increase in temperature (1.5-4.5 degrees) and sea level (20-140 cm). These statements were confirmed by the Second World Climate Conference of the IMO in 1990 in Geneva. A temperature increase of just 1.5 degrees could already alter the convection pattern in the sea, and consequently its biological productivity and its water balance, regional frequency of rainfall, and the distribution pattern of pollutants. The likelihood of disasters increases owing to the interconnection of climatic factors and non-climatic factors (for example population growth, pace of urbanisation, and development plans for coastal regions).

e.       Challenges for Europe

131.       All these developments point to the fact that future endeavours in the EU framework as elsewhere must bring about construction of more treatment plants, careful testing of industrial effluents, and reduction of the use of chemicals in agriculture. Furthermore, marine life-forms should receive greater protection, and navigation and the associated wastes should be more effectively controlled, introducing as appropriate legal rules applicable to all coastal states and to other users of the Mediterranean.

132.       The Mediterranean sphere is at once a part of Europe and its neighbour. Vital trade routes for Europe run through it, and the region holds important energy sources exploited by the European economy. The general interlinkage of the Mediterranean region’s problems must be recognised and due consideration given to the contrasts between the 18 riparian states in their geography, population, infrastructure, industry, agriculture and political situation. The universal impairment of the Mediterranean compels a strategy for solving environmental problems.

133.       The last few years have featured numerous co-operation efforts and stimulus to exchange between scientists. Noteworthy here are ICSEM (International Commission for the Scientific Exploration of the Mediterranean) and GFCM (General Fisheries Council for the Mediterranean). There is also ICAMAS (International Centre for Advanced Mediterranean Agronomic Studies). These bodies are active in various fields and committed to exchange of research findings.

134.       Despite these endeavours, more intensive multinational co-operation for the future protection of the Mediterranean appears necessary. Its dangerous state calls for a responsible policy geared to the different biological and socio-economic requirements of the various fishing zones. That is the only way to avert further damage and preserve this sea for the future as Europe’s largest recreational area.

13.       The fishing sector in the Black Sea region

135.       The Black Sea is the most distant sea from the Atlantic Ocean (not taking into consideration the Sea of Azov). Through the Kerch Strait it communicates with the Sea of Azov and through the shallow Bosporus (depth 37-120 m) with the Sea of Marmara and then through the Dardanelles with the Mediterranean. The Black Sea is a semi-closed basin, it is relatively deep (depths up to 2 258 m, average depth 1 292 m). Its maximum length is 1148 km and its maximum and minimum width are 610 and 258 km respectively. Its area is 417-423 thousand km2, the coastline measures 4 100 km, and its volume is about 537-555 thousand km3. Several big rivers, such as the Danube, Dnieper, Dniester and South Bug, discharge into the Black Sea, resulting in low salinity (approximately two times less) of its waters (18‰) compared with those of the Sea of Marmara and the Mediterranean.

136.       One specific feature of the Black Sea is the permanent presence of hydrogen sulfide at depths of more than 125-200 m, with a concentration exceeding 10 mg H2S per liter in some places since surface waters saturated with oxygen represent only 12% of the total water volume. As a result, the depths below 150-200 m remain relatively lifeless (except for anaerobic microorganisms) in comparison with the surface layer, where aerobic processes take place. Compared to the Mediterranean, the biodiversity of the Black Sea is low due to its low salinity. These features mean that the Black Sea has a low carrying capacity for assimilating pollutants and is extremely sensitive to the effects of human activity.

a.       Legal provisions and fishery policy

137.       The coastal countries of the Black Sea are Bulgaria, Romania, Ukraine, Russia, Georgia and Turkey. The first international contracts and conventions on fisheries in the Black Sea were concluded in the late 1950s: e.g. the “Agreement on fisheries in Danube waters between the Governments of the USSR, Bulgaria, Romania and Yugoslavia" (29.1.1958 No 905) and “Agreement between the Governments of the USSR, Bulgaria and Romania on fisheries in the Black Sea" (7.7.1959 No 969). These agreements are still officially in force, but structural and conceptual reorganisation of the old agreements on fisheries and wildlife management in the riparian countries is currently under way. In 1992, 11 states (including the six riparian states) came together for a Forum on economic co-operation among the Black Sea states. The Black Sea Economic Co-operation (BSEC) adopted a charter at a summit in Yalta in 1998, creating an international organisation from what had started as a political initiative. The BSEC makes a positive contribution to the region’s development in several fields including the environment.

138.       A new Convention on the Black Sea, providing for the preservation and optimum utilisation of living resources, is being prepared with the participation of the six riparian countries. Signature of the Convention has been delayed, but its importance is indisputable. There are also some bilateral agreements on fisheries management in the Black Sea region: e.g. the “Agreement between the Governments of Ukraine and Georgia on cooperation in the field of the fisheries” (Kiev, 1996).

139.       During last 10 post-communist years, following the transition of East European countries to market economies, a number of international programmes and conventions for improved environmental and fishery management in the Black Sea have been prepared: e.g. “Convention on the protection of the Black Sea against pollution” (Bucharest, April 1992), “Governmental Declaration” (Odessa, April 1993), “Black Sea Strategic Action Plan” (Istanbul, October 1996); and programmes: BSEC, NATO TU-Black Sea, EROS-2000, Co-operative Marine Science Programme, CoMSBlack, Delta Danube Programme, GEF Danube River Basin, etc. The Joint Fishery Commission and General Fisheries Council for the Mediterranean (GFCM) were founded with the task of proposing concrete measures for rational exploitation of Black Sea fish resources.

140.       However, fisheries management policies in the Black Sea are still being formed and continue to require concerted efforts at both national and international levels. The problems facing the Black Sea will have to be resolved in conformity with international maritime law16, and the goodwill of all the Black Sea States will be needed for a more rapid and effective protection of the fish population in the basin. Only through the common efforts of all the Black Sea States and the countries from the Danube Basin, will it be possible to preserve biodiversity of the fish population and its sustainable utilisation for commercial fishing..

141.       The main priorities for international nature protection activities for a rational use of living resources of the Black Sea, should be:

• Coordination of scientific research on ecosystem monitoring, estimation of living resources, definition of common regulations and quotas;

• Exchange of scientific and fishery-economic information, creation of a common database;

• Coordination of reconstruction of the biota, including increase of ecosystem efficiency;

• Common regulation of fishing and other kinds of wildlife management, coordinated control of catches.

142.       Such a multilateral approach to decisions on rational fisheries management is a reliable basis for the preservation of living resources, restoration and sustainable development of the ecosystem and exploitation of its resources at an optimal level by all coastal States.

b.       Fish populations and catch quotas

143.       Although almost 90% of the Black Sea is devoid of oxygen, the surface water layer is relatively productive: an estimated 165 fish species are to be found there. Among them, 119 species are typically marine, 24 anadromous and 22 freshwater ones. The bulk of the Black Sea ichthyofauna comprises marine fish of Mediterranean origin (about 60%), freshwater fish (more than 20%) and Boreal-Atlantic relicts (about 16%).

144.       A significant freshening of the waters in the northwestern part of the Black Sea, caused by above-mentioned rivers, explains the appearance of freshwater and anadromous fish in estuarine and lagoon areas. These fish include sturgeons, shads, carps, breams, porgies, pike, catfish, etc, which breed in fresh water. Brackish species like Black Sea kilka and gobies also occur in a large number in the freshwater areas in the northwestern part. There is a group of temperate marine species, namely: piked dogfish, thornback ray, sprat, flounder, Black Sea whiting, salmon, three-spined stickback, and eel. The largest group of fish species is composed of marine fish such as: mullets, anchovies, porgies, wrasses, blennies, pipefish and gobies. Fish migrating from the Sea of Marmara: the bonito, the mackerel, and the blue fish, are also very important. The greater number of pelagic fish and the limited number of bottom fish characterises the Black Sea ichthyofauna due to the contamination of its depths by hydrogen sulfide.

145.       Before the 1970s, more than 30 fish species were commercially exploited in the Black Sea, but their biodiversity has decreased considerably over the last three decades. Today, intensive fishing concentrates only on sturgeons, shad, anchovy, sprat, horse mackerel, whiting, gobies, turbot, spiny dogfish, mullets and, near the Turkish coast, bonito, blue fish, and mackerel.

146.       Fish catches in the Black Sea steadily increased after World War II until 1988, this was due, on one hand, to development of fishing vessels, gears and techniques, and on the other hand, to the increasing nutrient enrichment of the sea, which increased overall production and consequently landings. Traditional artisan fishing, using passive fishing gears, continued, but played a very limited role. From the 1950s, the riparian countries started fishing with small and medium sized mechanized vessels mainly in the coastal areas. At first, they used bottom trawls, which damaged the bottom communities and quickly reduced stocks of such valuable fish as sturgeons, turbot and mullets. But catches continued to increase as the fishery operations shifted to the open seas and began to concentrate on the huge stocks of small pelagic fishes, like anchovy and sprat. In addition, the number of purse seiners equipped with sonars and fish pumps, enabling them to locate stocks rapidly, increased sharply from 1970 to 1990.

147.       Long-term fluctuations in the stocks of exploited species have occurred concurrently with changes in the taxonomic composition of the catch. From 1940 to 1960, catches were dominated by pelagic zooplankton-feeders, anchovy and horse mackerel, with some additional large predators. In catches from 1960 to 1970, the large predators (mackerel, bonito, blue fish) were abundant. By the early 1990s, up to 95% of the catch was composed of pelagic anchovy, sprat and horse mackerel.

148.       The total fish stock before 1988-1989 was estimated at 3.5 to 4 million tons, of which anchovy, sprat and horse mackerel made up about 2-3 million tons, including 1.5 million tons in the CIS area.

149.       The total catches of all the Black Sea coastal countries increased significantly over several decades until the collapse in 1989. The maximum fish catches in Bulgaria (about 20 thousand tons), the former USSR (450 thousand tons), Romania (17 thousand tons), and Turkey (480 thousand tons) occurred in 1981, 1982, 1986 and 1988, respectively. Total fish catches reached nearly 800 thousand tons in 1988 and then dropped drastically to about 220 thousand tons in 1991. This was due to several factors: poor coordination in the fishery sector and lack of reliable stock assessments causing over-fishing, coupled with degradation of the Black Sea ecosystem (pollution, eutrophication, degradation of water quality, etc.) and massive proliferation of the new invader comb jelly predator Mnemiopsis leidyi which competes with fish for fodder zooplankton. These factors resulted in a considerable degradation in the state of the fish populations, for example the size of anchovy and sprat decreased by 1.5 (Shulman and Love, 1999). The decline in catches was also due to the socio-economic crisis in the former communist Black Sea countries.

150.       From 1992, a slight upward trend in fish catches in the Black Sea countries began and they have since recovered to a level of about 500 thousand tons. This is due to stabilisation at a lower level of the comb jelly biomass and reduced pollution of coastal waters by Ukraine, Russia, Georgia, Bulgaria and Romania.

151.       A positive factor for the situation of the Black Sea ecosystem was the appearance since 1999 of large numbers of a new invader ctenophora Beroe ovata which consumes the comb jelly predator Mnemiopsis. So there is hope that the abundance of Mnemiopsis will be considerably reduced in the near future.

152.       Recent stock assessments and fishery activities of the main commercial fish species in the Black Sea are given below.

154.       During the last 20 years, sprat (Sprattus sprattus phalericus) has been the most abundant and commercially important species in the northern Black Sea. Black Sea sprat are smaller and have a shorter life span than those found in the Atlantic and the Mediterranean, due to the specific environmental conditions. The stock of sprat has conspicuous cyclic recurrences. According to different estimates, it varies from 20-40 thousand tons to very high values of around 400-800 thousand tons. The dynamics of sprat biomass show high species sensitivity to natural environmental conditions. Total sprat catches increased considerably from 3-6 thousand tons in early the 1970s to 105 thousand tons in 1989. The main catching countries are the former USSR (Ukraine) and Bulgaria. Since 1988, there has been a sharp decline in sprat biomass owing to the high fishing effort of the former USSR (the highest catch recorded was 89 thousand tons in 1989). Sprat fishing is by bathypelagic trawls. During 1989-91, the Mnemiopsis biomass had also reached maximum values. Although sprat spawns during the cold winter months and the peak of its development does not coincide with the peak of the development of the ctenophore biomass, there are reasons to suppose that the ctenophore is a possible factor in the negative changes in sprat stock. Annual catches during the second part of the 1990s were about 20 thousand tons (Chashchin, 1999) The pronounced cyclical recurrence in sprat population dynamics corresponds to changes in global climatic factors and such anthropogenic factors as over-exploitation and eutrophication. Regardless of the high reproductive potential of sprat populations and the current opinion that the stock is under- exploited, the peculiarities of the ecology and behavior of this small pelagic species can easily lead to over-fishing and a decrease of the stock. Coordinated international monitoring of sprat stock and the development of a scientific basis for fishing regulation are needed.

155.       The Black Sea horse mackerel (Trachurus mediterraneus ponticus) is also one of the most abundant pelagic fish. Turkish catches of horse mackerel, like anchovy, are taken primarily in winter, when the species forms dense concentrations near the bottom in the wintering grounds. It is active fishing: bathypelagic trawls and surrounding nets (Gucu, 1997). Whereas during the warm season, fishing in the northern part of the Black Sea (former USSR, Bulgaria, Romania) was conducted mainly by passive gears (trap nets). Total catches of horse mackerel sharply increased from about 22 thousand tons in the 1950-70s to up to 141 thousand tons in 1985, then continued to drop to a low of 5 thousand tons in 1993. During the nineties, the Black Sea horse mackerel population decreased but it is now gradually increasing.

4.       Sturgeons.

156.       Fishing in the Black Sea also targets the commercially valuable sturgeons (5 species), which inhabit the northwestern part and spawn in the rivers Danube and Dnieper, as well as the Rioni and Kizil-Irmak. According to FAO statistics, the total catch of sturgeons was highest (about 450 tons) in the middle of 1960s, it gradually declined to 32 tons in 1991. Today, official fishing of sturgeon in the northern Black Sea has practically ceased because of the sharp decrease in their number, mainly due to illegal fishing that, according to expert assessments, amounts to about 200 tons.

157.       Commercially the Black Sea turbot (Psetta maeotica) also is one of the most valuable species in the basin, and is currently fished with gillnets. After over-fishing in the early 1980s, when annual catch achieved 3.2 to 5.3 thousand tons, the turbot stock declined sharply. There was a prohibition on turbot fishing in all the coastal countries (except Turkey) from 1986 to 1996.

158.       During this time there was a partial restoration of the turbot stock. According to trawling estimations its stock on the Ukrainian shelf was 8 thousand tons in 1994 and 10-11 thousand tons in 1995-1996.

6.       Mullets.

159.       Four mullet species have commercial significance in the Black Sea: the golden mullet (Liza aurata), the leaping grey mullet (Liza saliens), the grey mullet (Mugil cephalus) and the Pacific grey mullet (Mugil soiuy). The latter species was introduced into the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov for fish farming during 1972-1984. It was an exceptional case of the successful introduction of a fish species into the Black Sea: This mullet, originating from the far-east, established large natural populations and now has great commercial importance in the Sea of Azov. Its catches sharply increased during the 1990s and exceeded 10 thousand tons in 2000. The present stock in the Sea of Azov was estimated at about 30 thousand tons. The species spread all over the Black Sea and then migrated to the Sea of Marmara and the Aegean Sea.

160.       Statistics on the total mullet catch in the Black Sea was not broken down by species. From the 1980s to the 1990s, it was on average 2.5 thousand tons, of which the Turkish catch represented 88%. Experts estimate the total mullet biomass (without Pacific mullet) in the Black Sea at around 20-25 thousand tons.

161.       Others near-bottom fish species of significance for Black Sea fisheries are: Black Sea whiting (annual average catch was from 21 to 34,7 thousand tons during the 1980-1990s); spiny dogfish, with an annual average catch of approximately 4 thousand tons; red mullet (mean catches about 2 thousand tons); and thornback-ray (catches varied from 1 to 4,5 thousand tons).

c.       Fishing enterprises and their promotion

162.       For decades there was a planned state structure in the fishing industry in the Soviet Union and other socialist countries which, in post-soviet times, was appreciably reduced. As a consequence, total fish catches of Eastern countries decreased by about 2 times, in contrast, their imports increased by about 8 times, resulting in a reduction of fish consumption of up to 2 to 5 kg per person. Now, approximately 90% of fishing enterprises in the riparian countries (Russia, Ukraine, Georgia, Bulgaria, Romania) have a private or cooperative pattern of ownership. The changeover to the private sector has been accompanied by many problems affecting the fishing industry. Among the most important are: deterioration of fishing vessels, shortage of equipment, price increases leading to a loss in competitiveness, and insufficient financing in the development of the industry.

163.       The fishing industry is the most developed in Turkey, where it is traditionally a very important branch of the economy. The Turkish fishing fleet has from 450 to 500 purse seiners and boats equipped with sonar, fish-finders, fish pumps, etc. Annual fish catches vary from 250 to 400 thousand tons. Second place is occupied by Ukraine, which has a long coastline providing good natural conditions for fishing. However, high pollution of the northwestern shelf waters has resulted in a sharp decline in catches. Nowadays, the Ukrainian fishing fleet comprises about 80-100 purse seiners and boats and total fish catches are about 40-50 thousand tons. In other countries (Russia, Georgia, Bulgaria, Romania) the fishing fleets usually comprise less than 50 seiners and their catches in the Black Sea total several thousand tons. Thus, the share of the economy contributed by fishing in these countries is estimated at lower than 1% of GDP. However, the fisheries sector is very important as it provides a living to many households, especially in some less developed areas. Black Sea fishing is also carried out by individual fishermen in open-decked boats, net fishing and coastal fishing.

164.       At present, a similar structure in the fishing industry is to be found in the majority of Black Sea countries. Replacing the former state monopoly over the sector, the structure is based on the model of worldwide fishing practices, at the same time complying with EU requirements. There are authorised state bodies (ministries, departments, state committees) which, on the basis of scientific studies by special research institutes, divide quotas and issue fishing licences to the various enterprises which have applied. Research institutes carry out annual assessments of fish stocks and determine the size of allowable catches. There are also international commissions, which coordinate catch quotas in the Black Sea.

165.       Over the last few years, the number of fishing vessels has increased in many riparian countries. This did not result in a proportionate increase in the Black Sea fishing fleet’s total tonnage, as the retired medium-sized vessels of 80t and over of gross tonnage have been replaced by smaller-sized and more mobile vessels of 10 to 50 t of gross tonnage. The number of working vessels varies considerably within the year, depending on the abundance of fish, interdictions and restrictions on their fishing, and market demand.

d.       Environmental situation

166.       The ecological situation of the Black Sea is alarming. During the last 30-35 years its ecosystem has undergone dramatic changes due to different anthropogenic factors. The main factors are: 1) reduction of water exchange due to manipulation of the hydrologic regimes (dams, water diversion) of inflowing rivers; 2) eutrophication, characterised by the spread of phytoplankton blooms through excessive fertilisation with nutrients originating from agricultural and industrial effluents; and oxygen deficiency as consequence of eutrophication; 3) pollution of the sea by various toxins (heavy metals, radionuclids, pesticides, detergents, petroleum and products of its degeneration, etc); 4) the invasion of exotic species; 5) over-exploitation of some commercial fish species.

167.       The rivers Danube, Dnieper, Dniestr and South Bug play a crucial role in the degradation of the Black sea ecosystem and the consequential decline of fish stocks. These rivers, flowing through 17 European states with a total of 160 million inhabitants, are loaded with anthropogenic nutrients and waste from various sources and discharge them into the shallow northwestern shelf area of the Black Sea. The Danube alone is responsible for 80% of the Black Sea pollution by phosphates, nitrates and other chemical and toxic substances. Since the 1950s, the volume of nutrients and organic substances introduced into the northwestern shelf by the rivers has increased about tenfold. This part of the Black Sea has now become the largest hypertrophic area in the Mediterranean Basin (Zaitsev and Alexandrov, 1998). In comparison with the Mediterranean and the Baltic Sea, the Black Sea is considerably more burdened by phosphates and nitrates. This plays a very important role in marine ecosystems. By the end of the 1980s, the river outflow into the Black Sea contained about 4-5 km3 of waste waters annually (about 5% of the total river inflow). An average of 400 thousand tons of biogenic substances, 20 thousand tons of detergents, 700 tons of phenols, and 410 thousand tones of petroleum products flow into the shelf zone annually. In addition, 180 thousand vessels with a total displacement of 12.5 million tons, passing through the Bosporus, also pollute the sea with about 12 thousand tons of petrol (Prodanov et al., 1997).

168.       Another very important factor in the modification of the Black Sea ecosystem is the decline of water exchange due mainly to the decreased river inflow through diversion of water for agricultural purposes but also partly to global climatic changes which have affected overall levels of rainfall. The rivers are the source of about 70% of water replenishing the Black Sea. According to estimates, the outflow of the Black Sea waters through the Bosporus dropped by 57-60 thousand cubic kilometers from 1950 to 1980. Reduction of the river inflow has resulted in an increase of the anaerobic zone and additional eutrophication of the surface layer.

169.       The decline in river inflow, pollution and eutrophication have broken down the natural ratio between fundamental trophic levels phyto- and zooplankton, reflecting in the benthic and pelagic communities by a reduction in biological diversity and, in particular, the fish resources. Sedimentation on the shelf from large numbers of dead phytoplankton and their decomposition has caused hypoxia in the near-bottom water layer and mass mortality of benthic organisms (macrophytes, mussels, oysters, etc). Total biological losses due to hypoxia over 18 years (1973-1990) are estimated at 60 million tons, including 5 million tons of fish (Zaitsev and Alexandrov, 1998).

170.       The considerable changes in the Black Sea during last 30 years caused a sharp decline in the abundance of long-living commercial fish, such as sturgeon, turbot, shads and large gobies. The pollution of shelf waters, estuaries and lagoons has resulted in a depletion of the stocks of mullets, perches, etc. The migration of large predatory fish (bonito, blue fish, mackerel) from the Sea of Marmara has practically ceased. The predatory pressure on small pelagic fishes was thus reduced and these short-cycle species appeared more frequently in commercial catches. Excessive fishing in the current absence of international agreements and deterioration of the ecological conditions in the northwestern shelf area, which is the main spawning and nursery ground for many commercial species, like Black Sea anchovy, turbot, bonito, etc. have caused an unstable balance in their stocks.

171.       An especially negative phenomenon for the Black Sea biota and fisheries was the invasion at the beginning of 1980s of the comb jelly (Mnemiopsis leidyi) through the ballast waters of sea-going ships. The absence of enemies and its extraordinary levels of gluttony and fertility enabled the proliferation of this new ctenophore species during the warm season. Gradually increasing its total biomass, by 1989 its population had reached about 1 billion tons. This species consumes zooplankton (mainly copepods) and the eggs and larvae of fish. As a result, the biomass of the fodder zooplankton decreased, resulting in a sharp decline in stocks of anchovy, horse mackerel and some other fish. The decline of these stocks has resulted in reduced catches in all the Black Sea coastal countries and significant losses for their economy in terms of the value of catches, the value of vessels and equipment and employment. Thus, the introduction into the Black Sea ecosystem of only one new element resulted in a shift in the functioning of this unstable system.

172.       Over-fishing has had an important influence on the transformation of the Black Sea ecosystem and has clearly shown the biome reaction to anthropogenous impact. Firstly, fishing decreased the abundance of large long-living predators (turbot, mackerel, bonito, blue fish, shark, dolphins, etc.). The food chain became shorter and the dominant position in the Black Sea ecosystem was occupied by small pelagic zooplankton-feeders (anchovy, sprat and horse mackerel), and the jellyfish Aurelia aurita and Rizostoma pulma, which shared with these pelagic fishes one trophic level. At the beginning, nutrient enrichment and eutrophication caused an increase of stocks and consequently increased catches of small planktivorous fish, which became known as “eutrophication-enhanced fishery production”. After the initial positive effect, there follow a period of sharp fluctuations in biota parameters, increased frequency of plankton blooms, hypoxia, increased pollution of the fish spawning areas in the northwestern part of the Black Sea. The cumulative effect of these negative processes, together with over-fishing, caused an abrupt decline in fish stocks and, by contrast, hyper-productivity of the plankton-feeding jellyfish. Thus, the mean biomass of the jellyfish Aurelia which was 670 thousand tons in 1959-62, reached 300-450 million tons for the whole Black Sea in 1978. Consequently, this species had attained its maximum biomass just before the new invader Mnemiopsis leidyi outburst in 1988. The invasion of Mnemiopsis of the pelagic biome in the mid- to late 1980s encountered a high stock of pelagic zooplankton. Whereas the heavily exploited small pelagic fish population, with annual exploitation rates of up to 50% or more, competed with the jellyfish Aurelia aurita for the role of dominant primary carnivore. Such high exploitation rates of traditionally important species (anchovy, horse mackerel, kilka, etc.) may have acted jointly with eutrophication to open up en ecological niche for the comb jelly predator in the pelagic ecosystem of the Black Sea. This new species replaced Aurelia by a rapid increase, reaching 1 billion tons of total biomass, and spread all over the Black Sea. Later, between 1991-1993, the Mnemiopsis biomass leveled out and remained more or less stable at around 100 million tons. Hence, to restore the Black Sea ecosystem and fisheries the energy flow to jelly organisms can be diverted to fish.

173.       Thus, due to excessive pollution loading by man, the Black sea ecosystem has undergone significant changes. This, taken with the backdrop of transformation of the abiotic structure has caused the reorganisation of ecological links in communities and the appearance of new social and economical problems.

174.       Widely considered as the most degraded sea on Earth, the Black Sea is an excellent example of the adverse human impact on a marine ecosystem and what could happen in the very near future to other parts of the world’s ocean. On the other hand, it must become a good example to future generations of mankind’s ability to understand, save and protect an internationally shared resource.

e.       Challenges for Europe

175.       At present, the Black Sea fish resources show no tendency towards improvement. The poor economic situation in the majority of coastal states prevents not only improvement, but even maintenance at an essential level, of scientific research activities and fishery management.

176.       The first recommendation of the General Council for the Mediterranean (GFCM) (Ankara, 1993) was the need for a new Black Sea Fisheries Convention and Commission with full membership of all coastal States. Signing of this Convention has however, been delayed, but it is urgently needed.

177.       At a summit meeting in Yalta (Ukraine) in 1998, the Black Sea Economic Cooperation (BSEC), which brings together 11 states, urged the European Union to begin intensive cooperation to protect the Black Sea. At its meeting in Varna (Bulgaria) in October 2000, the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe held wide-ranging discussions on the situation in the Black Sea. Protection of the Black Sea should come within the “European remit”, and the European institutions should be prepared to support measures for promotion of Black Sea regional and sub-regional co-operation, especially in the field of protection of the environment. Regional co-operation with the Black Sea riparian states should aim principally at the furtherance of co-operation in commercial policy matters and at genuine implementation of environmental action plans and the Bucharest agreement. The prospective re-alignment of the “An Environment for Europe” programme of the Black Sea Co-operation to the Newly Independent States may open new horizons for co-operation on environmental policy in the Black Sea region.

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Reporting committee: Committee on the Environment and Agriculture

Reference to committee: Doc 7794 and Reference No. 2182 of 25 April 1997

Draft recommendation adopted unanimously by the committee on 24 January 2002

Members of the committee: Mr Martinez Casañ (Chairman), MM. Behrendt, Hornung, Stankevic (Vice-Chairmen), Mr Agius, Mrs Agudo, MM. Akçali, Akselsen, Mrs Angelovicova, MM. Annemans, Apostoli, Bartos, Bockel, Briane, Browne (Alternate: Connor), Carvalho, Sir Sydney Chapman, MM. Churkin, Ciemniak, Cosarciuc, Duivesteijn, von der Esch, Etherington, Frunda, Giovanelli, Gonzalez de Txabarri (Alternate: de Puig), Graas, Grachev, Grignon, Grissemann, Gubert, Hajiyeva, Haraldsson, Ilascu, Janowski, Juric, Kalkan, Mrs Kanelli, MM. Kharitonov (Alternate: Sudarenkov), Lord Kilclooney, MM. Kostenko, Kostytsky, Kurucsai, Kurykin, Lachat, Libicki, van der Linden, Lotz, Manukyan, Mariot, Mauro (Alternate: Nessa), Meale, Mrs Mikaelsson, MM. Monteiro, Müller, Oliverio (Alternate: Crema), Podobnik, Pollozhani, Popov, Salaridze, Mrs Schicker, MM. Schmied (Alternate: Mrs Fehr), Skopal, Skoularikis, Ms Stoejberg, Mr Stoica, Ms Stoyanova, MM. Theodorou, Timmermans, Tiuri (Alternate: Korkeaoja), Truu, Vakilov, Velikov, Volpinari, Yürür, Zierer.

N.B. The names of those members present at the meeting are printed in italics.

Secretariat to the committee: Mrs Cagnolati, MM. Sixto and Chevtchenko.

1 Economist and alternative Nobel Prize winner.

2 World Fisheries Situation, FAO Fisheries Dept., International Conference.

3 1992, Eurofish Rep. No. 375, Agra Europe (London) Ltd., Responsible Fishing, Cancun, Mexico, 6-8 May 1992, 1-12.

4 Inf. Fischwirtschaft (fisheries sector), 44 (4), 1997, p. 135.

5 Platt, Anne E., Langsam stirbt das Meer World-Watch March/April 1995, p. 19.

6        German Federal Health Ministry order on maximum quantities of harmful substances in foodstuffs (Schadstoff-Höchstmengenverodnung) of 23 March 1988, version of 3 March 1997, BGBL.I, p. 430, 1997.

7        TACs involve a limit on catch sizes relating to a specific marine area. The annual fixing of these aggregate catch quotas originated from the scientific recommendations of the International Council for Exploration of the Sea (ICES, 19 member states). The EU Council of Ministers for fisheries decides once a year on the fixing of aggregate quotas in the EU maritime area, which is then divided into national quotas according to invariable percentages. These measures have been part of EU fisheries policy since 1983.

8        Cf. Grasshoff, Klaus: Die Geschichte der internationalen Meeresforschung im Ostseeraum, in Magaard/Rheinheimer (ed.) 1974, pp. 261-263.

9        Ibid., p. 263.

10

11 Council Regulation (EC) No. 2550/2000 of 17 November 2000, published in the ECOJ L 292 of 21.11.2000.

12 Report of the 4th session of the Scientific Advisory Committee (SAC) of the GFCM (Athens, 4-7 June 2001).

13 “Review of the progress of stock assessment studies in the Mediterranean”, 2001, P. Oliver, Marine Resource Service, Fisheries Department, FAO.

14 For further information see “The knowledge of the state of Mediterranean resources in relation to their sustainable management within the Precautionary Approach to Fisheries - Recent initiatives and proposals to fill the gaps”, 2001, P. Oliver, Fisheries Department, FAO.

15 ECOJ C 19 of 20.1.2001.

16 The Law of the Sea, The Regime for High-Seas Fisheries (Status and Prospects, United Nations – New York, 1992).