1. Introduction:
Sustainable urban development – a healthy living space for an inclusive
society
1. In Europe and throughout the
world there is a clear trend towards urbanisation, with a conspicuous movement
of population towards metropolises and other highly attractive urban
settlements, such as university cities.
But
how do we explain the magnetism of cities? Densely populated urban
areas frequently offer their inhabitants the greatest economic,
social and cultural opportunities, which is why there has been an
observable influx of young people and migrants in particular.
In
cities, however, this influx places heavy pressure on the available
jobs and the housing market – with high risks of social upheaval
and segregation.
2. There are also two sides to urbanisation from an environmental
point of view. On one hand, cities create more pollution, seal more
open land under built structures and impose other burdens on the
environment. At the same time, densely constructed urban areas also
offer numerous opportunities for resource-efficient living
and
thus for sustainable responses to climate change and demographic
challenges.
3. You may ask why the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council
of Europe, which deals with human rights, democracy and the rule
of law, is considering the topic of urban development. I am convinced
that a resilient democratic society, where the human rights of all
people are respected, requires transparent and effective institutions,
and can only prosper in healthy surroundings. People’s participation
in the processes that shape their towns and cities is the exercise
of a civil right. The prerequisites for this participation are a
high quality of life, public places where people can come together
and a good social mix. If one of the greatest challenges of our
time, namely climate change, is to be addressed effectively, a healthy
civil society is indispensable. The Assembly can play an important
role by promoting relevant policies in co-operation with other partners,
such as the Congress of Local and Regional Authorities of the Council
of Europe and the Conference of International Non-governmental Organisations.
4. It is worth recalling that the Congress has outlined the key
principles of local governance which need to be applied consistently
in urban development, in the European Charter of Local Self-Government
(ETS No. 122), and works closely with local and regional authorities
across Europe to put them into practice. The Charter, which has
been ratified by all Council of Europe member States, underlines
the importance of a clear definition of the competences of local
authorities, the provision of adequate resources, capacity building
and effective consultation procedures. The Assembly promotes the
Charter through parliamentary action and monitoring activities.
Its
Resolution 2242 (2018) on the role of national parliaments in successful decentralisation
processes and
Resolution
1964 (2013) on good governance of large metropolises highlight respectively
the role of parliaments as guarantors of successful decentralisation
and the importance of promoting citizen participation at the local
level.
5. This report explores exemplary urban planning around Europe:
cities which are proactive and successful at creating economically,
socially and environmentally sustainable communities. The following
factors were considered: balanced development of dense neighbourhoods,
new mobility concepts, planning concepts for affordable and high-quality
urban housing, well-designed public spaces, and community participation,
as well as the connection to the region around the city. The report
makes recommendations on how national governments can facilitate
such initiatives at regional and local levels.
6. In July 2018, Professor Joachim Schultz-Granberg, external
expert, was mandated to explore these matters. His research results
were presented to the Committee on Social Affairs, Health and Sustainable Development
at its meeting on 18 September 2018 in Lisbon and provided the basis
for this text. A fact-finding visit to Zurich in October 2018 was
an opportunity for me to explore innovative Swiss practices and
approaches in urban development.
2. Sustainable urban development in the
global context
7. From the outset, I would like
to put special emphasis on the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals
(SDGs), not least because the High-level Panel on the Sustainable
Development Goals has stated that “the battle for sustainable development
will be won or lost in cities”. The specific goal in question is
SDG 11 on making cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient
and sustainable. At the Habitat III Conference in Quito (Peru) in
2016, the United Nations adopted a global road map for sustainable
urban development, the New Urban Agenda. This should also guide
our endeavours in Europe: let’s think globally and act locally.
8. Moreover, I see stable housing as a critical factor for positive
child development and family relationships, while substandard housing
has negative effects for the health of all individuals. Alarmingly,
it has been calculated that 828 million individuals live in substandard
housing.
This is why a substantial part of
this report will deal with the issue of housing.
3. European
cities – preserving shared heritage and responding to future challenges
9. Towns and cities must be understood
in their wider geographical context. They develop within a regional, national
and European space. Europe has a valuable shared heritage with respect
to healthy living spaces. The traditional European town or city,
with its central market squares and its mix of residential and commercial areas,
is conducive to social interaction and provides its citizens with
a high quality of life. One of its most important features is proximity.
For centuries these urban centres have been preserved and renewed.
Our task now is to find new responses to the pressure from an influx
of population and to the environmental challenges.
10. In 2007, the member States of the European Union adopted the
Leipzig Charter on Sustainable European Cities,
in which they established a common
understanding of principles for a new urban development policy in
Europe. The strategy of mixing housing, employment and recreational
uses in urban neighbourhoods is also commended in this Charter,
which comes out against one-sided ownership claims and the absolute
assertion of individual interests. Interaction between policymakers,
administrators, the business community, civil society and citizens
is a prerequisite for the balanced development of cities. Much emphasis is
also placed on preventing exclusion and isolation of individual
districts in cities, and I wholeheartedly endorse that message.
11. More recently, the 2018 Davos declaration entitled “Towards
a high-quality
Baukultur for
Europe”,
noted the urgent need to upgrade
the built environment in Europe and recognised a number of challenges
that are currently impacting our cities, such as accelerated urbanisation,
contraction of rural areas, shortage of resources and irresponsible
land use.
4. The
role of towns and cities in democratic processes
12. What makes people take responsibility
for their surroundings, and what makes them participate actively in
the life of the community? I firmly believe that a basic condition
for such commitment is a healthy living space and the opportunity
to take part in the shaping of that space. People appreciate buildings
with landmark potential and public spaces that are conducive to
social interaction. Local participatory processes are indispensable
for involving citizens in the shaping of their town or city and
are a good way of giving them first-hand experience of democracy
in practice. Inhabitants can only fully experience their town and
city when they are active and informed citizens. The absence of
appropriate public spaces and of opportunities for social participation
and civic engagement soon results in the emergence of social trouble
spots, characterised by a lack of employment prospects and by crime.
13. However, to counter such trouble spots and instead promote
active participation and the exercise of modern local democracy,
it would be advisable to set up elected councils at the different
levels of urban decision making. With a crisis of political representation
facing many countries, the Congress of Local and Regional Authorities
strongly believes that such growing disaffection with politics must
be tackled at the local level, as enshrined in its Urban Charter II.
Towns and cities must work together
to establish extensive local democracy. Information and communication
technologies must be used to tackle disaffection with the democratic
process.
14. In Germany, there is a special national
Land and
local authority support programme designed to encourage civic participation;
known as the Investment Pact for Neighbourhood Social Integration.
Its purpose is to make
urban life attractive and vibrant and to promote the social integration
of all citizens, particularly through investment in public education
facilities, meeting places, community centres, commercial centres,
sports facilities, playgrounds and public parks.
15. It has also become established practice to appoint neighbourhood
managers for certain sensitive urban areas. In the case of my home
city of Münster, the area around the main railway station is a good
example of a place where neighbourhood management is helping to
reconcile conflicting interests and contributing to greater safety
and a higher quality of life.
16. Betri Reykjavík (Better
Reykjavík) is an online participatory social network in Iceland.
It enables citizens to voice, debate and prioritise ideas to improve
their city. It does so by creating open discourse between community
members and the city council.
Betri Reykjavík also
gives the voters a direct influence on decision making.
17. If we want to ensure that urban development policies meet
the needs of everyone, including children, women, the elderly, the
poor, people with disabilities, migrants and refugees, inclusive
consultation processes need to be put in place. Furthermore, local
elections should provide effective channels for reflecting diverse interests
and concerns of the population in urban development. Taking into
account the principle of subsidiarity, the municipality is the policymaker,
the service provider, the employer and the custodian of public spaces
and public participation. Mayors play an important role when shaping
participatory urban development policies at the upper level.
18. Furthermore, the sharing of good practices is essential at
the European and international level. Within the Council of Europe,
the Congress of Local and Regional Authorities of Europe, the European
Committee for Democracy and Governance (CDDG) and the Centre of
Expertise for Good Governance provide useful working tools and platforms
for co-operation. The Intercultural cities programme (ICC) supports
cities in reviewing their policies through an intercultural lens
and developing comprehensive intercultural strategies. The Council
of Europe Development Bank (CEB) offers support to its member countries
and their local authorities through financing, technical assistance
and partnerships for sustainable and inclusive growth, climate action
and the integration of refugees, displaced persons and migrants.
19. International networks provide further opportunities. The
International Coalition of Inclusive and Sustainable Cities (ICCAR)
is an initiative launched by the United Nations Educational, Scientific
and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) in March 2004.
The Human Rights Cities Network
supported by the Raoul Wallenberg Institute marked the 70th anniversary
of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights by launching their
online platform. This platform creates an interactive community
of human rights cities practitioners and promotes the development
of human rights in Europe and beyond. Guest member cities and associate members
are key actors, sharing new ideas and taking current concepts to
their own cities.
5. Human
rights-based approach to urban development
20. I am convinced that urban development
must focus on the well-being of people and pay special attention to
vulnerable groups. Human rights and sustainable development are
intrinsically linked and need to go hand in hand when designing
and putting into practice urban development policies.
21. The United Nations Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEF) defines
the human rights-based approach as a conceptual framework for the
process of human development that is based on international human
rights standards and operationally directed at protecting human
rights. It seeks to analyse inequalities underlying the development
problems and redress discriminatory practices and unjust distributions
of power that impede development progress.
22. The “Gwangju Declaration on the Human Rights City”, adopted
in 2011, defines a human rights city as “both a local community
and a social-political process in a local context where human rights
play a key role as fundamental values and guiding principles”. A
human rights city places the individual in the centre. In practice, that
means giving space for all voices in urban development decision
making. It is an integral aspect of a human rights city to identify
who is being left behind, and which voices are not being heard.
23. The City of York was declared the first human rights city
in the United Kingdom in 2017. York conducted surveys of people
who lived in the city to find out what their human rights priorities
were. It then produced a report on how it would go about improving
the enjoyment of the right to equality, education, a decent standard of
living, housing, and health and social care. The report follows
progress, encourages debate and inspires action. The city is now
on its second report, and the analysis shows how the enjoyment of
rights is being affected, positively or negatively, and why.
24. In Sweden, the Lund City Council decided that the United Nations
Convention on the Rights of the Child should be applied in all municipal
decisions and set up procedures for considering the perspectives
of children when planning for roads, buildings, parks, water supply,
sewage, waste management, culture, care for the elderly and infirm,
business development and investments.
6. Model
for sustainable urban development – purpose and vision
25. Urban development requires
vision and strategic planning. First, local authorities must describe
their model for the development of the city or town, because no
objectives can be achieved without a clear sense of purpose. Sustainable
development and a human rights-based approach should be central
aspects of this model.
26. The City of Vienna, for example, adopted its Smart City Wien
Framework Strategy in 2014 as its urban-development model for the
period up to 2050. The model sets overarching priorities, which
naturally overlap in some areas. These priorities are quality of
life (social inclusion, participation, health and the environment), resources
(energy, mobility, infrastructure and buildings) and innovation
(education, business, research and technology).
27. Furthermore, it is important to consider the regional picture.
My home city of Münster has 300 000 inhabitants, about 40% of whom
travel by bicycle every day. This context is likely to present very different
challenges from those that exist in a metropolis like London. It
is also important that the urban development model is not over or
under-defined, because it must remain adaptable. Urban development always
needs long-term thinking, because spatial structures outlive societal
trends.
28. Based on each model and its component parts, specific development
plans must then be created for particular urban areas. Such specific
plans should include, for example, occupation density, land use,
transport connections and urban development requirements regarding
public spaces and facilities.
7. New
approaches to mobility
29. Travel and mobility are becoming
increasingly important in today’s society of intense interactions.
As such, a sustainable approach to mobility is imperative for urban
areas and their periphery. This is a domain where people’s lives
can be better organised and, at the same time, a great contribution
can be made to protecting the environment. At this point I would
like to stress that the rural surroundings of towns and cities must,
of course, be included in transport and spatial planning.
30. New approaches to mobility, involving automated and connected
vehicles, will give a crucial boost to the safety, efficiency and
environmental compatibility of road traffic. Many cities’ public
transport systems already benefit, for instance, from mobile apps
that streamline the experience for riders. Using these tools to
deliver real-time information about delays enables riders to change
their routes on the fly, thus reducing traffic congestion. The new
digital opportunities and self-driving vehicles will be of vital
importance in linking and integrating all parts of cities and their
rural periphery. If cities are to develop sustainably, however,
mobility should not mean the predominance of private cars. The area
of land used in the construction of roads and sealed under buildings
and infrastructure must be limited for the sake of sustainability.
Accordingly, the approach to sustainable urban development, in addition
to being pedestrian-friendly, must be clearly focused on integrated
approaches to mobility and on car-sharing, local public transport
and cycling.
31. It is also very important to consider commercial traffic and
logistics as part of the planning process, since goods transport
accounts for about one third of the volume of traffic on our roads.
In cities, the number of journeys made by courier and parcel services
is increasing sharply, partly as a result of online shopping. This calls
for new strategies in urban-development planning.
8. Mixed-use
districts – a high quality of life for everyone
32. The mixed-use districts approach
aims at improving access to workplaces, services, cultural sites
and sports facilities. It allows the use of transport and thus pollution
to be reduced, fosters community cohesion, contributes to the quality
of life and enables the development of vibrant societies.
33. Hybrid districts achieve the highest quality of life if the
social mix of their population is matched by mixed use of urban
space, where people live near places of work in an area interspersed
with cultural facilities and green spaces, all within walking distance
of each other. Educational institutions, ranging from schools to
higher education and opportunities for life-long learning must,
of course, be included. Whenever possible, childcare facilities
should be located in easily accessible locations, providing, if
adequate, inter-generational meeting places for training and leisure
activities, which bring together children and elderly people. This
vitality makes for economic, social and environmental sustainability.
34. This is also an explicit rejection of dormitory towns, where
people merely go home to sleep, and which have scarcely any community
life. If new peripheral suburbs must be developed because of high
pressure on housing, these should be woven wisely into existing
structures, and a mix of social strata and land uses should be part
of the plan.
9. Healthy
spatial development – mitigating climate change
35. While infrastructure development
is necessary, it should not be done at the expense of the quality
of life. Safe, inclusive and appealing public spaces, especially
in densely populated urban areas, are of great importance. High-quality
green spaces are essential elements of urban development, because
they enhance quality of life, improve air quality, help to mitigate
climate change and promote biodiversity. Europe can expect more
hot, dry summers, and we need strategies for adaptation to climate
change, particularly in cities, where green space is at a premium.
36. The 2016 French Public Health Agency study, which concluded
that pollution was killing 48 000 citizens every year, placing it
among the greatest health issues, only behind tobacco and alcohol,
demonstrates the urgency of this
problem. To ensure that air is “breathable”, efforts should be made
to support heat-tolerant green spaces with optimised water supply.
Enhancing vegetation and promoting sustainable transport will be necessary.
37. In urban areas with high population density, we should also
focus on the greening of both vertical and horizontal surfaces,
such as facades and roofs. Despite – or precisely because of – the
shortage of space, such innovative forms of greening have particularly
great potential.
38. According to the current national indicator report on the
United Nations Sustainable Development Goals, under SDG 11 – Make
cities inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable – the proportion
of recreational space in German cities amounts to 13.9%.
In the coming decades, however,
thanks to a decline in motorised private transport, we can expect
a reduction in land that is currently sealed under buildings and
infrastructure. It is not unrealistic, then, that we could see a
sharp increase in the proportion of recreational land in cities,
which might, for example, reach 20% by 2050. This is an area where
targets can be set, and sustainable urban development can be planned.
Let’s not miss the opportunity to encourage systematic urban reforestation.
10. Energy
efficiency in the built environment
39. Our built environment can and
must contribute greatly to achieving the climate goals of the 2015
Paris Agreement. On my mission to Zurich, I learned about the Swiss
vision: “the 2000-watt society”. The goal is to reduce the primary
energy consumption per person down to 2000 watts and a maximum of
1 ton of CO2 emissions per person per year
by 2050-2100. For this reason, the “2000-Watt Site” certificate
was developed.
The certificate makes it possible
for the first time to evaluate large site developments in terms
of building quality, density, mixed usage and mobility. The total
energy consumption of a certified site is optimised to the targets
of the 2000-watt society. The Lokstadt building development in Winterthur,
which I visited, aims to achieve these goals and has applied for
the certificate.
40. This approach to sustainability is comprehensive and orientated
at the long term. Its core idea is an ongoing evaluation process
of a site’s sustainability, in terms of energy development, planning,
implementation and operation. I strongly support this approach and
encourage other member States of the Council of Europe to learn
from the Swiss example.
41. Furthermore, the current vision of the sustainable city pays
little attention to the ecosystems outside the city. The question
of how cities will reduce the demand on extra-urban ecosystems providing
resources for the city is not always addressed. How many trucks
are necessary to supply cities like London or Paris every day? What
percentage of energy consumption does freight transport to urban
centres represent? These questions raise serious issues about possible
compensation mechanisms towards agricultural and farming production areas,
which tend to be neglected.
11. Affordable,
quality and inclusive housing – a critical factor for building cohesive
communities
11.1. Socially
responsible land use
42. In many places the rapid influx
into highly sought-after urban areas has led to a sharp increase
in demand and hence to spiralling housing costs. This shortage of
housing and the price increases then result in displacement, homogeneous
residential areas and social tensions. To achieve social cohesion
through socially mixed populations, affordable housing must be created
and maintained. This means not only traditional social housing for
people in the lowest income brackets but also, to an increasing
extent, housing for those in middle income brackets in cities, with
a special concern for young people who decide to form a family.
Encouragement of property ownership is also conducive to a good
social mix. Buying a home, moreover, is an investment for old age,
which contributes to sustainable budgeting. In Europe, the ownership/tenancy
ratio differs very widely between countries. With due regard to
regional circumstances, support should also be made available for
the purchase of affordable housing.
43. Municipal housing associations and co-operatives can help
to make affordable housing available. However, the important role
played by private developers in the creation of housing stock should
not be underestimated, as they often act more nimbly to expand the
property market. Emphasis should also be placed on small-scale housing
projects implemented by private owners, because these contribute
to the diversity of urban building development. Smart co-housing
solutions can also be promoted for different target groups, with common
use of services and/or for intergenerational arrangements to provide
support to the elder and cheaper housing for the younger.
44. Another reason for the soaring cost of housing lies in the
increase of speculative deals, in which land plots are purchased,
but never built on, or are repeatedly sold. This prevents the essential
construction of new housing and artificially inflates land prices.
Governments have several ways to combat this phenomenon. If they
define affordable housing as a matter of public interest by virtue
of its contribution to sustainable development, land can be made
available more cheaply for housing developments. Land owned by national, regional
or local public authorities should therefore be used for the construction
of affordable housing. In Germany, for example, the Price Reduction
Guidelines (Verbilligungsrichtlinie),
enacted by the Institute for Federal Real Estate, provide scope
for the sale of federally owned land to local authorities at a special discounted
rate, if social housing is to be built on it. This is not intended
to exclude private investors however, because the discounted rate
still applies if private investors buy the land from the local authority
and undertake to devote a certain percentage of the development
to the construction of social housing.
45. Other options may include a higher tax on undeveloped building
land, or the use of compulsory building notices imposing a requirement
on the landowners to build certain types of dwelling on their property.
46. European cities where a large influx is only just beginning
should take timely action by holding on to inner-city sites and
residential properties, instead of selling them for short-term gain.
Regrettably, this very mistake has been made in many German cities,
and intervening price trends have made it virtually impossible to
repurchase the sold properties.
11.2. Construction
of social housing
47. The purpose of social housing
is to create housing for people in the lowest income brackets by
means of public subsidies. National and regional authorities can
do this by subsidising the construction of social housing and by
creating tax incentives. Setting a quota and ensuring adherence
to that quota is then, of course, a matter for city administrations
and can reflect local conditions. In Münster, for instance, a quota
of 30% social housing is now applied to large-scale building developments.
48. However, a concentration of social housing in peripheral areas,
such as the French banlieues or British council estates, is potentially
a social powder keg. The aim should therefore be to distribute social
housing widely across the territory of cities, although it must
be re-emphasised that the key lies in achieving the right mix. Care
must be taken to ensure that districts of the city are not cut off,
that they do not become dead ends, with no development, no social
mobility and poor transport links. In this respect, it is also important
to highlight the problems associated with homogeneous social environments
in suburban public schools and their consequences for social cohesion.
49. One issue that keeps surfacing in connection with social housing
is that of misallocation. In Austria and Germany, the income limit
for social housing is only checked on initial allocation, after
which the tenant can stay in his or her dwelling forever. Given
the shortage of social housing, this means that people who now earn good
incomes are still living in low-rent social housing, while no homes
are available for those who really need them. This could be addressed,
for example, by means of a misallocation levy, which would at least
provide additional revenue for the construction of more social housing.
50. It must also be emphasised that the replacement of older social
housing with new construction currently poses one of the greatest
threats to social housing stock, because new construction is so
expensive that people earning low incomes cannot afford to rent
them without massive subsidies.
51. The most striking example of vigorous support for affordable
housing in Europe is the city of Vienna. The city has more than
420 000 dwellings belonging to the city council or non-profit housing
associations, which accommodate a population of 1.89 million. It
must also be said, however, that this high percentage of subsidised
housing has historical roots and would be almost impossible to emulate
elsewhere. The housing that is available on the free market in Vienna,
on the other hand, is very expensive to rent. The council housing, moreover,
is available only to Austrians and, since 2008, to other European
Union citizens, provided they have already been living in Vienna
for at least two years. For this reason, all those who move to the
city or who arrive there as migrants are excluded from access to
social housing, at least for a certain time.
11.3. Co-operatives
as a means to promote price stability and common responsibility
in housing
52. In Austria, Germany and Switzerland,
co-operatives are a tested means of creating housing at stable prices
in a way that can counteract speculation. Co-operatives are often
non-profit bodies; even those that make a very limited profit are
required to reinvest most of their earnings. There are diverse tax
exemptions for these co-operatives but also special legal obligations.
In Germany, non-profit housing associations were abolished in 1990,
but there is still a tax exemption for housing co-operatives.
53. Housing co-operatives distinguish themselves from other co-operative
societies in that their members do not own part of the corporate
assets, but only share in communal ownership of the co-operative,
which is the owner of the real estate.
This
may comprise several buildings or even, in the case of large co-operatives, a
geographically spread portfolio of buildings. Members cannot sell
parts of a building, such as a flat, but only shares in the co-operative.
Besides acquiring shares in the co-operative, member residents pay
a rent-like contribution for the dwelling they occupy.
54. A good example is the
Allgemeine
Baugenossenschaft Zürich, which I was able to visit on
my fact-finding mission in Switzerland. The ABZ is a non-profit
housing co-operative with a stock of 4 500 dwellings in Greater Zurich.
It was founded in 1916. The mission statement of the ABZ is as follows:
“The ABZ builds and acts in accordance with the principles of social,
economic and environmental sustainability. We focus on people, not on
profit. We are committed to cost price rents and to preventing speculative
dealing in building land. We champion co-operative ideas both within
and outside the ABZ. As collective owners, our members take decisions
on fundamental issues, thereby acting as joint promoters of the
co-operative.”
55. The advantage of co-operatives therefore lies not only in
their impact on price stability but also, and above all, in the
participatory momentum and common responsibility that are their
hallmarks.
11.4. New
co-operatives promoting social mix and mixed land use
56. Besides the large traditional
co-operatives with sizeable housing stocks, which often grant their
residents only limited participatory rights, there is now also a
trend, especially in metropolises and university cities with high
housing demand, towards innovative co-operatives with entirely new
approaches, in which the aims of social mix and mixed land use play
a prominent part.
57. One innovative prizewinning example of a new co-operative
development is Mehr als wohnen (“More than
Living”), the development of the Hunziker Areal complex in Zurich.
This project, with a surface area of 41 000 m² and 450 housing units,
was launched with the aim of creating not a housing estate (Siedlung), but a vibrant district.
In 2016 the residents moved in, and there is indeed an astonishingly
diverse mix, with many family homes but also students, young couples,
singles and senior citizens. Twenty percent of the complex comprises
social housing, but this is well distributed across the site to
prevent the formation of ghettos. A group of disabled persons is
also housed there, as well as orphaned children. In addition, there
are two restaurants, a hotel complex, a café, shops, several workshops
and offices, a music club, an art gallery, a nursery school and
more besides.
58. One new approach is to create less living space per head and
bigger communal areas. These new small-scale co-operative projects
are based from the outset on a high degree of participation on the
part of future residents. A group is often formed which discusses
residents’ needs with architects and planners, and the living space
is then developed accordingly. This frequently results in substantial
cost savings, for example if the voluntary renunciation of private
cars can result in the creation of only a few spaces for car-club
or jointly owned vehicles, instead of a larger, more expensive underground
garage.
59. The Kalkbreite co-operative in Zurich is an example of a co-operative
with a high degree of co-determination and a high percentage of
communal living space. This is evident, for instance, in the cluster
units. These are exciting experimental housing situations, which
I was able to visit. In these cluster units 20 people may, for example,
share a large communal kitchen and lounge, each of them also having
his or her own bedroom and bathroom, while families might have two
private rooms adjoining the communal areas. In larger complexes
several of these cluster units also share rooftop terraces and bicycle
cellars, and there are catering facilities, communal sports centres
and perhaps also a café. The mix can bring together pensioners,
students, singles and couples in these clusters.
60. Apart from promoting a sense of community, this approach can
reduce the space needed for individual living quarters and so result
in a more efficient and affordable use of resources. There is nevertheless
a broad spectrum of opinion as to how far participation and the
use of communal spaces should go. A high level of consultation,
for example when decisions are taken on the range of sports to be
offered by the co-operative, is not everyone’s ideal, nor is the
high percentage of living space devoted to communal facilities.
61. It must be emphasised, nonetheless, that the appeal of urban
life derives precisely from this diversity of options and that a
city administration should therefore seek to support a wide range
of initiatives that create affordable housing and provide for a
good mix. Whether housing is provided by a co-operative, a municipal housing
enterprise or private investors, whether it is social housing, housing
for the middle classes or owner-occupied property, the right mix
makes for a healthy town or city.
12. Connecting
research community with municipal authorities
62. National and regional governments
should support research programmes in the field of sustainable urban
development. Together with research establishments and local partners
from the cities, they should develop new ideas for sustainable urban
development, which should then be piloted in urban areas. Theories must
be put to the test in the everyday life of cities.
63. In this context I would like to refer to FONA, the German
Federal Government programme of research for sustainable development.
In 2016, as part of that programme, the
Zukunftsstadt (“City
of the Future”) innovation platform
was created to link
the research community with municipal authorities, to contribute
to the sustainable redevelopment of our cities.
13. Urban
initiatives for social inclusion
64. Targeted initiatives supported
by local authorities often have a broad outreach and lasting impact.
Be it addressing discrimination, promoting intercultural dialogue
or encouraging active participation – cities and towns across Europe
develop actions to build inclusive and peaceful communities.
65. Increasingly, cities take steps to make women feel safer when
moving around the city, and more than ever, women are being consulted
in planning new urban development. In 2016, the Barcelona City Hall launched
the communication campaign “Barcelona rejects sexist violence” to
raise citizen awareness of the sexist violence experienced by women
in personal, professional and community life.
66. Successful integration of migrants and refugees is a priority
area for many European municipalities. The Youth College is a free
education, training and mentoring programme for young migrants aged
between 15 and 21 in Vienna. As part of the city’s broader “Start
Wien” integration initiative, the aim of the Youth College is to help
young migrants lead an independent life as quickly as possible by
preparing them for further education, vocational training or the
workplace.
67. Dublin City Council aims to support community groups with
their activities and projects by promoting participation and involvement
in the city through the community grants scheme, which is run on
an annual basis. Under the scheme, community and voluntary groups
may apply for grants for activities which benefit the local community.
Dublin Council Community Development Officers oversee reaching out
to community members, inform and assist them, and help to build
strong social networks. They work to give everyone in the community
the opportunity to participate in the life of the city and have
their voices heard.
14. Recommendations
– reinforcing the role of local authorities in the planning process
68. Sustainable urban development
requires vision and strategic planning. It is essential that the
well-being of society is placed at the heart of urban development,
and that public authorities regain and make use of their ability
to shape the way we live in our cities and towns. The public sector
must take the lead role in urban planning and as an effective planning
authority, it must see eye to eye with private investors. In certain circumstances,
the public sector must also assume the role of investor and landowner
to counteract undesirable developments resulting from excessive
speculation and deregulation.
69. National authorities should provide legislative and institutional
frameworks, which support and encourage cohesive and human-rights
based urban development. Municipal administrations have a major
role to play in the implementation of the urban-development model.
Relevant players must be trained and encouraged to choose and follow
the path of sustainability and to support economically, environmentally
and socially sustainable projects. It is imperative that they systematically
develop the courage to innovate.
70. Effective consultations and decision-making mechanisms involving
the key actors need to underpin urban development at all stages,
from its conception to monitoring and evaluation. Inclusion of vulnerable groups
in relevant processes is essential for ensuring that everyone’s
needs are adequately met, thus reducing the risk of social exclusion
and alleviating tensions.
71. Cities in very popular areas must come to realise that they
can lay down clear requirements before selling land or zoning it
for development, to support inclusive community building. As pressure
has grown on housing markets, alternatives to the practice of selling
municipal sites to the highest bidder have developed over the past
few years. In these alternative systems, sites are not sold to the
developer offering the highest price, but to the developer whose
outline plan offers the most sustainable approaches to the continuing development
of the district. Accordingly, this method is known as Konzeptvergabe, or conceptually-based contracting.
72. Consultation procedures on land development before sites are
sold or contracts awarded are of great importance. This public participation
before the sale of land is crucial if cities are to develop in line
with their citizens’ needs and if building projects are to gain
public acceptance. As a matter of principle, there should be round
tables that bring together politicians, administrators, business
representatives, investors, representatives of civil society and
citizens.
73. Urban-development contracts (which are used in Austria, Germany
and Switzerland), should be used as an additional means, over and
above the local building plan, of achieving the aims of the local
authority. This instrument offers great potential for promoting
sustainable urban development. Special emphasis is placed, in this
context, on specifying priorities and preconditions, because it
enables local authorities to pursue objectives, such as developing
a culture of high-quality built environment (Baukultur)
or saving energy. As described above, cities can promote the goal
of a good social mix by introducing a requirement whereby a certain
percentage of new developments would be devoted to social housing.
74. In addition, incentives should be created to motivate developers
to create more public spaces or green areas to compensate for increases
in population density. For example, permission for an additional
storey could be made conditional on the incorporation of a metro
station into the basement of the building.
75. To sum up, sustainability, high quality of life and a good
social mix should be guiding principles for cities underpinning
their planning procedures. Inclusive and participatory urban planning
is an essential element of a democratic society and should be supported
and promoted in the Council of Europe member States.