Report | Doc. 15539 | 23 May 2022

Preventing and combating antisemitism in Europe

Committee on Equality and Non-Discrimination

Rapporteur : Ms Petra BAYR, Austria, SOC

Origin - Reference to committee: Doc. 15168, Reference 4544 of 20 November 2020. 2022 - Third part-session

Summary

Antisemitism is built on harmful stereotypes which make the Jewish community a scapegoat for emerging crises. Far from being relegated to a threat from the past, antisemitic violence and hate speech, including online, are a daily reality across Europe today. The Covid-19 pandemic brought with it a rise in conspiracy myths accusing Jewish communities of creating and spreading the virus.

Tackling antisemitism is of concern for us all. Antisemitism is in contradiction with the fundamental values on which the Council of Europe was founded and should be addressed in a human rights framework. Resolute action must be taken both to prevent and combat antisemitism and to foster Jewish life on the continent.

The adoption of action plans or strategies to prevent and combat antisemitism, with sufficient funding for their implementation, criminalising the denial, trivialisation or the condonement of the Holocaust, where this is not yet the case, investing in Holocaust remembrance, including at school, developing exchange programmes, making the fight against online hate speech a priority and taking measures to foster Jewish life in Europe are essential components of the fight against antisemitism which should be implemented without delay.

A. Draft resolution

(open)

1. The Parliamentary Assembly is deeply concerned by the rising hatred and violence against Jewish people in Europe in the past years. It notes with regret that due to these manifestations of antisemitism a considerable number of Jewish families have left Europe, or are considering leaving Europe.

2. Antisemitism is an attack against human rights and needs to be addressed in a human rights framework. It represents a threat to democracy and is in contradiction with the fundamental values on which the Council of Europe was built. It is of concern for us all. Preventing and combating antisemitism must be considered a political priority.

3. Antisemitism online has recently dramatically increased, leading to the widening dissemination of conspiracy myths. The Assembly regrets the emergence of conspiracy ideologies, blaming Jewish communities for the creation and propagation of the Covid-19 pandemic, amongst others. The Russian Federation’s war of aggression against Ukraine has also brought another echo to antisemitic conspiracy ideologies in Europe. Antisemitism is built on harmful stereotypes which make the Jewish community a scapegoat for any emerging crisis. Addressing antisemitic conspiracy myths is an essential part of the fight against antisemitism. Investing in history, education and the fight against Holocaust denial and distortion is of crucial importance. The Assembly therefore welcomes the adoption by the Committee of Ministers of its Recommendation CM/Rec(2022)5 on passing on remembrance of the Holocaust and preventing crimes against humanity, on 17 March 2022.

4. The Assembly welcomes the development of international efforts to prevent and combat antisemitism such as the adoption of national strategies on combating antisemitism and fostering Jewish life by several States, the appointment of special envoys and co-ordinators on combating antisemitism, including the appointment of a Special Representative of the Council of Europe Secretary General on antisemitic, anti Muslim and other forms of religious intolerance and hate crimes, and the adoption of an European Union Strategy on Combating Antisemitism and Fostering Jewish Life (2021-2030). Sufficient funding for the implementation these strategies needs to be guaranteed. Fostering Jewish life and raising awareness about Jewish culture are essential tools for preventing and combating hatred, as well as enabling people to live an openly Jewish life.

5. Referring to its Resolution 1563 (2007) “Combating anti-Semitism in Europe” and its Resolution 2106 (2016) “Renewed commitment in the fight against antisemitism in Europe”, the Assembly recognises that the overall context has changed and that there are new challenges in the fight against antisemitism. It fully supports the work of the European Commission against Racism and Intolerance (ECRI) and welcomes the adoption in 2021 of its revised General Policy Recommendation No. 9 on preventing and combating antisemitism. The non-legally binding working definition of antisemitism of the International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance, in the light of ECRI’s opinion, provides useful guidance in the fight against the phenomenon.

6. In the light of these considerations, the Assembly calls on Council of Europe member and observer States, as well as on all States whose parliaments enjoy partner for democracy status, to:

6.1. adopt strategies or national action plans to prevent and combat antisemitism and to promote Jewish life and allocate sufficient funding for their implementation;

6.2. criminalise denying, trivialising or condoning the Holocaust, if that is not yet the case;

6.3. ensure that the desecration and profanation of Jewish property and monuments are condemned;

6.4. in case of a criminal offence, ensure that a motive based on “race”, national or ethnic origin, religion or belief is an aggravating factor;

6.5. sign and ratify Protocol No. 12 to the European Convention on Human Rights (ETS No. 177), where it is not yet the case;

6.6. sign and ratify the Additional Protocol to the Convention on Cybercrime, concerning the criminalisation of acts of a racist and xenophobic nature committed through computer systems (ETS No. 189), if this has not yet been done;

6.7. fully implement ECRI’s revised General Policy Recommendation No. 9 on preventing and combating antisemitism;

6.8. apply legislation criminalising antisemitic and other forms of hate speech, make the fight against antisemitism online a priority, take specific action to sanction online hate speech, including financial fines, and call on the accountability of social media to remove antisemitic content;

6.9. appoint a special envoy or co-ordinator on combating antisemitism, where it is not yet the case;

6.10. use the non-legally binding working definition of antisemitism of the International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance, in the light of ECRI’s opinion, as a practical guideline for action to prevent and combat antisemitism, if this is not yet the case;

6.11. improve the recording and collection of official data on antisemitic incidents, train police officers, prosecutors, and judges on preventing and combating antisemitism, encourage victims and witnesses of antisemitic violence and harassment to report incidents to the authorities and support victims of antisemitic violence and harassment with specialised support services;

6.12. develop and sustain co-operation between national authorities, Jewish communities and civil society organisations to map and address issues pertaining to antisemitism;

6.13. make teaching about the Holocaust a priority in programmes at secondary level, train teachers on preventing and combating antisemitism, and support the Observatory on History Teaching in Europe;

6.14. launch awareness-raising programmes on preventing and combating antisemitism, which would contribute to deconstructing conspiracy ideologies and stereotypes and encourage interfaith and intercultural dialogue;

6.15. abolish public financial allowances of organisations promoting antisemitism;

6.16. adopt an intersectional approach in the fight against antisemitism and support research into the gender dimension of antisemitism.

7. With a view to fostering Jewish life in Europe, the Assembly also calls on member States to:

7.1. ensure the security of Jewish communities living in Europe and of Jewish religious and cultural premises;

7.2. together with representatives of Jewish communities and experts on Jewishness, develop and support programmes aiming at sharing information about Jewish culture and traditions, such as the pathfinders’ programmes;

7.3. support Jewish educational and cultural structures, such as Jewish museums, and programmes, and promote visits and exchanges for students.

8. With regard to Holocaust remembrance, the Assembly calls on Council of Europe member and observer States, as well as on all States whose parliaments enjoy partner for democracy status to implement Recommendation CM/Rec(2022)5 of the Committee of Ministers to member States on passing on remembrance of the Holocaust and preventing crimes against humanity. The Assembly pledges to continue organising Holocaust remembrance ceremonies during its first part-sessions.

9. The Assembly calls on political parties to take strong measures where there are manifestations of antisemitism, or any form of hate speech, in its instances, and political leaders to clearly speak out against antisemitism and other forms of hatred.

10. The Assembly also asks national parliaments to:

10.1. carry out awareness-raising activities aimed at preventing and combating antisemitism, in co-operation with the No Hate Parliamentary Alliance whenever possible;

10.2. organise events on Holocaust remembrance, distortion and denial and debates on combating all forms of hatred, including antisemitism;

10.3. create parliamentary groups on combating all forms of hatred, including antisemitism;

10.4. publicly and resolutely condemn expressions of antisemitism and other forms of hatred by parliamentarians.

11. Recognising that sport is an important vector for communicating positive behaviours to a wide public, in particular to young people, the Assembly calls on sports federations and clubs to participate in the fight against antisemitism and encourages them to adopt codes of conduct condemning it, launch awareness-raising campaigns and sanction hate speech.

12. The Assembly expresses its support for civil society organisations working to prevent and combat antisemitism and other forms of hatred and calls for an increase in their financial assistance.

B. Explanatory memorandum by Ms Petra Bayr, rapporteur

(open)

1. Introduction

1. Antisemitism is a threat to democratic societies, an attack against human rights and a form of dehumanisation of persons belonging to Jewish communities. It undermines fundamental values which led to the creation of the Council of Europe. Antisemitism must be prevented and combated with determination and strength.

2. For years, antisemitism has been monitored by the European Commission against Racism and Intolerance (ECRI), notably through its country reports on each and every Council of Europe member State, and has been measured by the European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights, including through its EU-wide surveys.

It expresses itself in all aspects of life. It blames Jews all around the world for political decisions taken by Israeli governments, denies the right of the Jewish communities and individuals to live peacefully and is a threat to security and to social cohesion in general.

3. Antisemitism is not an isolated phenomenon. It must be of concern for everyone. It is a human rights issue which should be tackled in a human rights framework. According to Dr Ahmed Shaheed, United Nations Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion or belief, perpetrators of xenophobic attacks frequently also target Jewish communities. According to Michael Whine, ECRI member in respect of the United Kingdom and chairperson of ECRI’s working group on antisemitism: “Antisemitism is religious, racial and political”. It is built on prejudice. The response to antisemitism should therefore take place at multiple levels.

4. The Covid-19 pandemic has had negative consequences on equality and non-discrimination throughout Europe. It has affected disproportionately the most vulnerable parts of the population and exacerbated hate speech, including face-to-face interactions, in the media and online. Antisemitic conspiracy myths were widely shared on social media during lockdowns, notably accusing Jewish people of having created the virus, of spreading it intentionally or of benefiting unfairly from treatment and vaccination. New forms of Holocaust distortion have occurred where, for example, opponents of governmental measures compared themselves to Jewish victims of Nazi Germany, carrying yellow star badges. These ideas were also propagated during demonstrations against public health measures taken by governments to limit the spread of the virus. This has shown that our societies are not as open, free of prejudices and inclusive as we thought, and the pandemic has been a magnifying glass for all forms of discrimination and othering.

5. The Russian Federation’s war against Ukraine brings another echo to antisemitic conspiracy ideologies in Europe. Antisemitic conspiracy ideologies and propaganda related to the war have been widely shared on social and mainstream media and revealed profound antisemitism, including trivialisation and distortion of the Holocaust.

6. Assembly Resolution 2106 (2016) “Renewed commitment in the fight against antisemitism in Europe”, which set out action to be taken to tackle antisemitic hatred, discrimination and violence and made clear that antisemitism and its manifestations are in clear contradiction with the fundamental values of the Council of Europe, is still valid. However, the overall context has changed with the emergence of new and violent attacks, the development of conspiracy myths linked to the pandemic and the war, and rising hate speech, including online and during demonstrations. Educating and raising awareness about the horrors of antisemitism through teaching and remembering the Holocaust in schools, adult education and in the media is also becoming more difficult as the number of living Holocaust survivors and witnesses dwindles. History education is challenged by the spread of Holocaust denial and distortion, revisionism as well as other forms of conspiracy and the perversion of history online. New ways to teach about the Holocaust should be found and investing in education to combat stereotypes is urgent.

7. At international level, concrete developments demonstrating strong political will to prevent and combat antisemitism are to be welcomed. ECRI adopted its revised General Policy Recommendation No. 9 on preventing and combating antisemitism

on 1 July 2021. Organisations such as the Council of Europe, the United Nations, the European Commission and the Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights of the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE/ODIHR) have all appointed special representatives or coordinators on combating antisemitism. Special envoys or national co-ordinators on antisemitism have also been designated in some Council of Europe member States and national strategies and actions plans have either been adopted or are under preparation.

The Council of Europe now also has a Special Representative of the Secretary General on antisemitic, anti-Muslim and other forms of religious intolerance and hate crimes.

The EU adopted its first Strategy on Combating Antisemitism and Fostering Jewish Life (2021-2030)

on 5 October 2021. This is an undeniably positive development which will lead to more co-ordinated action. In the current context of rising antisemitism, resolute and co-ordinated political action is essential.

2. Aims and scope of the report

8. The motion for a resolution at the origin of this report stresses that the Assembly should reaffirm that there can be no place for antisemitism in Europe and proposes concrete action to address this global problem. It highlights that political leaders are responsible for making priorities of awareness-raising, prevention, protection and history education, in order to contribute to ensuring that everyone can live safely in Europe and build an environment where Jewish life is fostered.

9. This report presents data on antisemitic hate speech and attacks, and action taken to respond to them at various levels. I have tried to analyse what could be done to tackle the spread of conspiracy ideologies, including online, and measures taken to combat antisemitism in sport, amongst others. I have looked for inspiring initiatives in the field of prevention of antisemitism, Holocaust education and promotion of the Jewish heritage in Europe. I have collected good examples on how we can reach “ordinary” people with messages that reveal and combat antisemitism and not only those who are already aware and alert to the problem. Football and other kinds of everyday or leisure activities are a welcome medium to meet this goal. In addition, I have looked into the gender dimension of antisemitism, and into intersectionality in antisemitism. With this report, I intend to throw light on new trends defining antisemitism today and make concrete recommendations on how to tackle new challenges in the fight against it.

10. The International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance (IHRA) adopted a non-legally binding working definition of antisemitism,

which has been endorsed by 34 States, including 25 Council of Europe member States, by the European Union, and the United Nations Secretary-General António Guterres. This definition is intended to guide action at national level on combating antisemitism.

On 2 December 2020, ECRI adopted an opinion on this definition,

highlighting that it was a “working”, non-legal, definition and should be understood as a practical tool. “ECRI welcomes the non-legally binding IHRA Working Definition of Antisemitism in the sense that it aids and promotes a better understanding of antisemitism (…) and considers that it can be a positive tool and encourages Council of Europe member States to take it into account, in particular in the areas of data collection, education and awareness-raising”. Michael O’Flaherty, Director of the European Union Fundamental Rights Agency (FRA), underlined at our hearing on 14 March 2022 that the FRA was using this working definition in its work on antisemitism. In my view, the Assembly should call on Council of Europe member States to use the IHRA working definition of antisemitism, in the light of the ECRI opinion.

3. Working methods

11. I have conducted desk research on antisemitism and Covid-19 as well as on the latest data on antisemitic hate speech and attacks. I have also analysed the recommendations made by ECRI to member States on preventing and combating antisemitism. Furthermore, I have worked closely with the FRA to analyse the data from their latest survey on antisemitism and with ECRI.

12. I have sent a questionnaire to national parliaments via the European Centre for Parliamentary Research and Documentation (ECPRD) to enquire about new legislative developments as well as recent parliamentary initiatives to prevent and combat antisemitism. I would like to thank the national parliaments

which provided replies to the questionnaire and will summarise in the report some of the inspiring initiatives shared by them.

13. On 15 September 2021, the committee held a hearing with the participation of Michael Whine, ECRI member in respect of the United Kingdom and chairperson of ECRI’s working group on antisemitism, as well as of Karin Stögner, Professor and Chair of Sociology at the University of Passau, and Elias Dray, President of the European Union of Jewish Students. On 14 March 2022, the committee held a second hearing with the participation of Michael O’Flaherty, FRA Director, Katharina von Schnurbein, European Commission Coordinator on combating antisemitism and fostering Jewish life, and Daniel Höltgen, Special Representative of the Council of Europe Secretary General on antisemitic, anti‑Muslim and other forms of religious intolerance and hate crimes.

14. I have held a series of virtual bilateral meetings in the past year. On 19 February 2021, I met with Benjamin Nägele, Secretary General of the Jewish Community in Austria. On 10 March 2021, I held a meeting with Yaron Gamburg, Deputy Chief of Mission at the Permanent Delegation of Israel to International Organizations in Paris. On 11 March 2021, I held a virtual meeting with Mikolaj Wrzecionkowski, Adviser on combating anti-Semitism at the OSCE/ODIHR. On 23 March 2021, I held a meeting with Michael Whine, accompanied by Thobias Bergmann from the ECRI Secretariat, followed by a meeting with Katharina von Schnurbein, European Commission Coordinator on combating antisemitism and fostering Jewish life. On 30 March 2021, I met with Daniel Höltgen, and then with Leon Saltiel, Representative at UN Geneva and UNESCO and Coordinator on Countering Antisemitism for the World Jewish Congress. On 23 June 2021, I met with Rabbi Mendel Samama in Strasbourg. On 28 June 2021 and 13 September 2021, I met with Lord John Mann, United Kingdom Government's Independent Adviser on antisemitism. I also held virtual meetings with Ahmed Shaheed, UN Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion or belief, and with Karel Fracapane from UNESCO on 29 June 2021 and followed online events organised by the European Union and the OSCE. On 8 October 2021, I held a virtual meeting with Dr Felix Klein who co-ordinates the fight against antisemitism in Germany, and another meeting with Alina Bricman, Director of European Union Affairs at B'nai B'rith International. On 19 October 2021, I had a virtual meeting with Julana Bredtmann, programme officer at IHRA. I also held a bilateral meeting with Michael O’Flaherty, FRA Director, during his visit to Strasbourg on 14 March 2022, and a virtual meeting with Özgur Derman, Deputy Head of the Office of the Council of Europe Commissioner for Human Rights, and with Patricia Ötvös, Adviser to the Commissioner, on 28 March 2022. I held a virtual meeting with Molnar Zsolt, Deputy Ombudsman of Romania, on 29 March 2022 and with Petra Kahn Nord, representing the World Jewish Congress, on 31 March 2022. On 5 April 2022, I held a virtual meeting with Ambassador Alexandru Victor Micula, Special Representative for Combating Antisemitism (Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Romania). On 8 April 2022, I met with Aron Verständig, the President of the Central Jewish Council in Sweden, and with Rachel Mizrachi, Jewish community of Oslo, who shared her experience as a pathfinder. On 19 April 2022, I met with Rabbi Andrew Baker, Personal Representative of the OSCE Chairperson-in-Office on Combating Anti-Semitism.

15. I took part in the 7th Global Forum on combating antisemitism held in Jerusalem on 13-14 July 2021 and used this opportunity to meet relevant experts working in this field. I was also able to follow partially the Malmö Forum on Holocaust Remembrance and Combating Antisemitism on 13 October 2021 (online).

On 11 November 2021, I took part in the Global Conference on Football’s Role in Combating Antisemitism held in Vienna, where I had the opportunity to exchange with the representatives of the Chelsea Football Club and Borussia Dortmund.

4. ECRI country monitoring and recommended actions

16. ECRI has addressed the need to prevent and combat antisemitism in most of its country monitoring reports. In a significant number of Council of Europe member States,

ECRI has in past years observed a rise in antisemitism, taking different forms ranging from personal attacks to hate speech, including online.

17. In several of its reports, ECRI noted the significant under-reporting rate of cases of antisemitic hatred or racist violence. It emphasised the need to increase police and the judiciary’s capacity to receive complaints, and therefore their training.

In Austria,

ECRI considered the decision of the Vienna Education Board to make the subject of human rights one of its long-term teaching objectives, by offering relevant training seminars to teachers, to be a good practice.

18. ECRI suggested introducing criminal offences, if they did not already exist, for acts such as public defamation with an antisemitic or racist aim and public expression of an ideology that claimed the superiority of a group of people.

ECRI advised intensive training of prosecutors and criminal judges on freedom of expression and religion.

19. Overall, ECRI strongly recommended that authorities ensured adequate police protection for Holocaust survivors who shared their testimonies and during events organised by the Jewish community. Furthermore, ECRI regularly recommended in its reports that antisemitic groups, in particular neo-Nazis, be prevented from spreading antisemitic hatred. It clearly asked authorities to combat, prevent and punish illegal neo-Nazi activities and events. It also recommended that specific awareness-raising campaigns be conducted to dissuade young people from joining neo-Nazi and skinhead groups.

ECRI stressed that authorities should conduct thorough investigations into acts of vandalism and threats against the Jewish community.

20. ECRI also paid attention to rising antisemitism online, which had become one of the main challenges. In order to combat it efficiently, ECRI recommended that the authorities use a common coding system for police and prosecutors and established sub-categories for offences targeting particular victim groups.

At the same time, ECRI recommended that the authorities set up a system for collecting data and producing statistics offering an integrated and coherent view of the cases of antisemitic and racist hate speech and violence brought to the attention of the police and/or pursued through the courts.

21. According to ECRI, education is a fundamental tool to eradicating antisemitism and it recommends that human rights education be integrated into school systems, at all levels. Given the importance of the education sector in preventing and combating antisemitism, ECRI has urged the authorities to ensure that effective measures were devised and implemented by the relevant ministry, which included the fight against other forms of racism. ECRI also recommended that the authorities included in their curricula lessons on the legal system of discrimination and on the explanation of complaints procedures.

22. It is not only students who need to be educated. ECRI suggests that the authorities launch new anti-hate campaigns aimed at the general public. To head their efforts, the authorities should be guided by ECRI's General Policy Recommendation No. 15 on combating hate speech.

23. I am most grateful for having had the opportunity, at the invitation of ECRI, to give my comments on the draft revised General Policy Recommendation No. 9 on preventing and combating antisemitism during the review process. The co-operation between the Assembly, including our committee and the No Hate Parliamentary Alliance, and ECRI is indeed excellent and should be commended.

24. Michael Whine presented the revised General Policy Recommendation No. 9 to the committee on 15 September 2021, shortly after publication, and stressed that ECRI found that contemporary antisemitism retained many elements of classical religious and racial antisemitism but that it was taking new forms as well. ECRI also found that hatred against Jews was “spread by a wide range of individuals and groups including neo-Nazis, right-wing extremists, religious extremists, in particular violent Islamists, as well as certain left-wing extremists”. He underlined that the fight against antisemitism must be part of the general fight against racism and intolerance.

25. ECRI’s revised General Policy Recommendation No. 9, as well as its Opinion on the IHRA Working Definition of Antisemitism and several of its annual reports in recent years also highlight the growing problem of Israel-related antisemitism. In this context, ECRI has repeatedly underlined that criticism of Israel cannot be considered per se antisemitic, as long as it is expressed in the same way as criticism against other States.

Furthermore, ECRI notes that “the view that attacks on Jewish persons and property could be considered as justifiable reactions to policies or actions of the Israeli Government is, regrettably, widespread and not only held by members of extremist groups.”

In its revised General Policy Recommendation No. 9, ECRI also recommends that governments “condemn activities to promote boycotts of the State of Israel, its nationals or Israeli companies and institutions if such activities incite violence, hatred or intolerance”.

26. The revised General Policy Recommendation includes 52 recommendations at the policy and institutional levels, in the fields of education and prevention, protection of Jewish communities and the prosecution of crimes against Jews. It takes into account new developments and challenges in preventing and combating antisemitism. I co-operated closely with ECRI in the framework of the preparation of this report and it goes without saying that in my view, the Assembly should call for support to and effective implementation of revised General Policy Recommendation No. 9.

5. Tackling the rise of antisemitic conspiracy myths and ideologies

27. At our hearing, FRA Director Michael O’Flaherty underlined that antisemitism was an existential issue for Europe, since modern Europe was built on the repudiation of the Holocaust. Tackling the rise of antisemitic conspiracy myths, including online, must be made a priority.

28. In 2018, the FRA published results of a second survey on the experiences and perceptions of antisemitism among Jewish people. Nine in ten persons interviewed felt that antisemitism had increased in their country in the past five years. FRA reported that “they assessed antisemitism as being most problematic on the internet and on social media (89%), followed by public spaces (73%), media (71%) and in political life (70%)”.

The survey also revealed that 79% of respondents who had experienced antisemitic harassment in the past five years did not report it to the police. 50% of young Jews told the FRA that they had experienced an antisemitic act personally in the past year. 40% told the FRA they were considering emigrating from the European Union to go elsewhere. FRA found that a “normalisation of antisemitism” had taken place.

29. Since then, the Covid-19 pandemic has triggered a rise in antisemitic conspiracy in Europe.

Jewish people have been accused of creating the virus, spreading it with intention, or making profit out of the marketing of treatments and vaccines. Antisemitic signs and slogans were used during demonstrations held in 2020, 2021 and 2022 against health measures taken to tackle Covid-19. Some slogans included “vaccination makes you free”. Some demonstrators wore the yellow star Jews were forced to wear under Nazism, made references to the Holocaust and comparisons between the deprivation of Jewish people’s liberties during the Nazi regime and the restriction of movement during lockdowns, or when a proof of vaccination was required for access.

These comparisons are unacceptable.

30. In France, clearly antisemitic slogans have been displayed during anti-health pass demonstrations. The slogan “but who?” has become an antisemitic code. Names of members of the government have been displayed and their alleged Jewish faith criticised. Some anti-mask and anti-vaccine activists claim to be “the new Jews” because they are “persecuted”. Antisemitic incidents are reported daily such as the profanation of the stele of Simone Veil in the otherwise peaceful town of Perros-Guirec, in the Brittany region of France in August 2021. As an example of how frequent these incidents have become, in Germany, the Federal Association of Departments for Research and Information on Antisemitism (Federal Association RIAS) reported 1 909 antisemitic incidents in 2020, of which one quarter were linked to Covid-19.

31. In Austria, one could observe an increase in antisemitic statements and symbols during demonstrations in public spaces. “Since January 2021, participants in protests against the measures to combat the Covid-19 pandemic have been spotted wearing a “yellow star” as a patch with the words “not tested” or “vaccine victim” on their clothes. The public wearing of these or comparable symbols can give rise to initial suspicion of a criminal offense according to paragraph 3h of the National Socialism Prohibition Act 1947 – NS Verbotsgesetz 1947. The police reported those criminal offences to judicial authorities”.

32. At the Jerusalem summit on combating antisemitism there were discussions on the fact that many people’s accusations against Jewish people as creators and spreaders of the virus responded to a need to find and name a scapegoat – and Jewish people too often find themselves the “default” scapegoat. I have also been informed of the rise of a conspiracy ideology linking George Soros, a Jewish businessman, with the World Health Organization and pharmaceutical companies, who are accused of having together created the pandemic so as to make profit.

33. I received information about an interesting initiative organised by the Jewish Museum in Brussels. It tries to “introduce young people to Jewish culture through various participatory workshops, while at the same time challenging prejudices. In one of the workshops, for example, the myths and stereotypes of Jews are discussed to give young people the opportunity to debunk the prejudices. This can contribute to a better understanding of conspiracy theories”.

34. At the Malmö Forum, on 13 October 2021, the former Swedish Prime Minister Stefan Löfven stressed that “antisemitism was in itself a conspiracy theory based on notions of Jewish power and interest”.

35. An increase in antisemitic conspiracy ideologies can also be observed in the war of the Russian Federation against Ukraine. At our hearing held on 14 March 2022, Katharina von Schnurbein underlined that “Putin’s war on Ukraine was used to promote antisemitic conspiracy theories alleging that the war was orchestrated by Jews, for financial control and global power”. She stressed that “language and justification of the war by President Putin had antisemitic connotations, he alluded to Nazi leadership in Ukraine (“denazification”) while the country had a leader of Jewish background”. She also said that President Putin had alleged to genocide caused by Ukrainians and talked about a final solution. This war will have long-term consequences for the European Union and the Council of Europe, since it is an attack against the values on which they have been built. The situation of Jewish communities leaving Ukraine to go to Israel or to other European countries also needs our attention as well as the fact that economic crises have traditionally caused an increase of antisemitism.

6. Tackling online antisemitism

36. During our meeting, Mr Whine, from the ECRI, underlined that the internet was the primary vehicle of antisemitism and that Holocaust distortion had increased dramatically since the beginning of the Covid-19 pandemic. He stressed that “accusing minorities, often the Jews, of conspiracy theories is a historical antisemitic trope; conspiracy theories are promoted to divide societies”.

37. The study on “the rise of antisemitism online during the pandemic”,

analysing data in France and Germany, clearly shows that there was an increase in antisemitic posting (a seven-fold increase on French language accounts and a thirteen-fold increase on German language accounts) between the two first months of 2020 and of 2021. Specific antisemitic narratives are linked to the pandemic and, at the same time, the report explains that there has been a proliferation of “classical anti-Jewish tropes” with conspiracy myths on how Jewish people are ruling political and financial institutions as well as the media. Online platforms should take responsibility for the removal of antisemitic content.

38. At our hearing, Daniel Höltgen told the committee that big internet companies only reacted when there was clear legislation on preventing and combating hate speech, a risk of damage to their reputations and financial consequences. He therefore found the fines against internet companies very effective. He indicated that according to evidence brought by the French Jewish Student Union in a legal case against Twitter in France, the platform only removed 10-20% of notified illegal hate speech during the pandemic. Some platforms were even less responsive, others more responsive.

39. The European Union has established a code of conduct for the internet platforms to take down illegal hate speech within 24 hours when signalled to them. In the framework of the implementation of the strategy, there is a project to create a Europe wide network of trusted flaggers and fact checkers to ensure removal of or counter narratives to antisemitic content across the European Union.

40. Former Dutch Justice Minister, Ferdinand Grapperhaus, pointed out, at the Jerusalem summit, that the increasing use of the internet and social media and the conspiracy myths surrounding Covid-19 has made antisemitism more visible in society. Awareness-raising efforts at large to prevent and combat conspiracy ideologies and negative stereotyping of Jewish people need to be further supported.

7. Rise of antisemitism in political spheres and parliamentary response

41. The willingness to co-ordinate better political action was demonstrated at the Malmö Forum on Holocaust Remembrance and Combating Antisemitism on 13 October 2021, which brought together delegations from 50 countries, the European Union, including the FRA, and key civil society actors. At the Forum, Märta Stenevi, former Swedish Minister for Equality stressed that “the exposure to antisemitism and other forms of racism affects our society at large. It challenges the mutual trust that is vital to our societies (…) The same forces that spread hatred often showed hatred against women, LGBTI, Roma and Jewish people”. Edi Rama, Prime Minister of Albania, also underlined that “antisemitism is not just about Jews, it is about humans. Fighting antisemitism is fighting racism and fundamentalism”. Preventing and combating antisemitism is also about the protection of human rights in general and of our living together.

42. When he presented his report on antisemitism to the UN General Assembly in 2019, Ahmed Shaheed underlined that antisemitism was toxic to democracy. He was “alarmed by the growing use of antisemitism tropes by white supremacists, including neo-Nazis and members of radical Islamist groups, in slogans, images, stereotypes and conspiracy theories to incite and justify hostility, discrimination and violence against Jews. He said he was also “concerned about the increasing expressions of antisemitism emanating from sources in the political left and about discriminatory State practices towards Jews”.

Karel Fracapane, from UNESCO, stressed that antisemitism has a political function which should be unveiled.

43. At the 7th Global Summit on Combating antisemitism, Professor Deborah Lipstadt explained that antisemitism was rising both on the left and on the right of the political spectrum, so it had to be fought at both ends. She underlined that Jewish people were seen as white and wealthy by some people, who would therefore not consider them as victims. “The ultimate victim of antisemitism is democracy”, she stressed.

44. The conflict in Gaza in spring 2021 and events in the Middle East have led to criticism of the State of Israel which has often been accompanied by antisemitic comments and attacks. Events at international level have an influence on how Jewish people are perceived in Europe and elsewhere. I am of the opinion that one can criticise the policies of Israel without being antisemitic. Dr Sharon Nazarian stated at the summit that “holding Jewish communities responsible for the policies of the State of Israel is a manifestation of antisemitism”. Forcing young Jewish people whose families have lived outside Israel for generations to take a stand on the conflict although they bore no responsibility for the policies or actions of the Israeli Government can be another example of antisemitism. I am conscious that the line between antisemitism and criticism of policies and actions of the Israeli government that falls within the limits of free speech may appear to be a fine one, but the IHRA working definition provides useful guidance here. I would therefore advocate for its use in the light of ECRI’s opinion. Katharina von Schnurbein underlined that all the elements presented in the working definition were antisemitic, although not all of them were illegal in Europe.

45. The Commissioner for Human Rights of the Council of Europe drew attention to the role of politicians to make sure they would not disseminate hate speech and antisemitism. Antisemitism within political parties must be addressed. The publication of the Equality and Human Rights Commission report

on antisemitism in the Labour Party in the United Kingdom led to strong measures such as the expulsion of some of its leading officials. In France, several public figures have been prosecuted for antisemitic statements since 2017. They include a politician, essayists and an actor. In the Slovak Republic, in 2017, two members of parliament refused to apologise for their antisemitic statements and were fined (€1 000).

46. The trivialisation of the Holocaust is a first step to amnesia. At the Malmö Forum, Charles Michel, President of the European Council, highlighted that “silence is the first step to acceptance and that silence is complicity. A policy of zero tolerance to antisemitism is needed”. Trivialisation and distortion online, in political speeches or as part of any kind of rhetoric should be prohibited. In its country monitoring, ECRI has noted a strong increase in levels of incitement to antisemitic and racial hatred, particularly in the context of public discourse, including by representatives of political parties. There is widespread impunity for and insufficient official condemnation of hate speech.

Firm political commitment and action to combat all expressions of antisemitism and hatred is needed. ECRI recalls the need for a strong response, especially the criminalisation of the trivialisation or denial of the Holocaust and crimes of genocide, including when such statements are made by officials.

47. The replies to the questionnaire provide an overview of parliamentary actions to prevent and combat antisemitism. A certain number of parliaments organise ceremonies to commemorate the victims of the Holocaust on 27 January every year (Cyprus, Austria, Montenegro and Sweden to name a few). Thematic debates and exhibitions have also been organised in some national parliaments. In Poland, there is a Parliamentary Group for the Commemoration of Babi Yar Massacre and for a Europe Free of Genocide and Hatred.

48. Since the autumn of 2019, the Austrian Parliament has proposed workshops against antisemitism. I have been informed that the President of the National Council actively promotes the participation of parliaments in the “We remember” campaign by the World Jewish Congress and UNESCO, which is held every year from 20 to 27 January. In 2020, the Simon Wiesenthal Prize (€30 000) for persons who are engaged in combating antisemitism and educating people about the Holocaust was created and it was awarded for the first time on 12 May 2022.

49. On 3 December 2019, the French National Assembly adopted Resolution No. 361 on combating antisemitism, aimed at recognising the working definition of antisemitism by IHRA. Antisemitism is described as "a certain perception of Jews which may manifest itself in hatred towards them. The rhetorical and physical manifestations of antisemitism are directed at Jewish and non-Jewish individuals and/or their property, community institutions and places of worship". A study group on antisemitism was established in the National Assembly.

50. In Germany, the Bundestag has also launched initiatives to prevent and combat antisemitism. In 2009, it established the first independent expert group to combat hostility towards Jews, organised within the Federal Ministry of the Interior. A second expert group presented its report and recommendations in 2018.

The Bundestag also decided to create the position of a Co-ordinator to combat antisemitism. The person appointed works on the co-ordination of government measures to tackle antisemitism and is the face of the German Government in this fight. In addition, a group of interest for Jewish life in Germany – The Bernhard-Kreis – was founded in September 2020 by and for the parliamentary staff, across all political groups. This group aims at combating prejudices.

51. In the Riksdag in Sweden, the “Remembrance of the Holocaust” network, supported by all parties in the parliament, holds an annual commemoration ceremony on 27 January and organises visits to concentration camps.

52. In Switzerland, the parliamentary group against racism and xenophobia was created in 1992 and deals with the fight against antisemitism at parliamentary level. In addition, there is an independent federal committee against racism.

53. On 27 January 2022, the Parliamentary Assembly held a solemn event in its hemicycle on “Testimony, memory, teaching, and history: remembrance of the Holocaust for future generations”, on the occasion of the International Day of Commemoration in memory of the victims of the Holocaust.

54. The parliamentary response to antisemitism is crucial. Recent developments showing parliamentary action and concern for the fight against antisemitism are encouraging steps. The No Hate Parliamentary Alliance could help members in increasing their efforts to prevent and combat antisemitism.

8. Enabling Jewish life, ensuring security and the protection of human rights of Jewish people in Europe

55. Enabling manifold and vibrant Jewish life and ensuring the security and the protection of Jewish people is of utmost importance and should be the responsibility of States. In some Council of Europe member States, Jewish children attend private Jewish schools, paid for by their parents and communities, because they feel they provide a safer environment for them. A considerable number of Jewish families have left Europe or are considering leaving Europe to look for safety in Israel, Canada, or the United States. During our meeting, Rabbi Baker stressed that some members of the Jewish communities did not want to wear any visible religious symbols by fear of antisemitism.

Antisemitism threatens the stability of societies and poisons democracies.

56. The EU Strategy on combating antisemitism and fostering Jewish Life,

drawing on data and evidence collected by the FRA in 2018 and 2019,

indicates that “44% of young Jewish Europeans have experienced antisemitic harassment”. It also states that “71% of Jewish people at least occasionally avoid carrying and displaying items that could identify them as Jewish”, that “38% of Jews have considered emigrating because they do not feel safe as Jews in the EU”, and that “one third (34%) of Jews avoid visiting Jewish events or sites at least occasionally because they would not feel safe there or on the way there”. The Strategy makes the fostering of Jewish life and protection to Jewish communities a priority. It calls for EU member States to adopt national strategies or action plans to combat antisemitism and appoint national co-ordinators dedicated to their implementation. The Strategy is based on three pillars: preventing and combating all forms of antisemitism, protecting and fostering Jewish life, and education, research and Holocaust remembrance. It also includes an external dimension. The creation of an EU research network on Holocaust remembrance is foreseen. By November 2021, 13 EU member States had already adopted their national strategy to prevent and combat antisemitism, with a number of other member States also in the process of developing their strategies or action plans.

57. The Council of the European Union adopted the “Council Declaration on the fight against antisemitism and the development of a common security approach to better protect Jewish communities and institutions in Europe” on 6 December 2018, which serves as a reference document for the European Union in its action against antisemitism. It also adopted a Declaration on mainstreaming the fight against antisemitism across policy area on 2 December 2020 and Conclusions on combating racism and antisemitism of 4 March 2022.

58. At the High-Level Conference on Protection from Racial Discrimination and Related Intolerance organised by the Portuguese Presidency of the European Union on 20 April 2021, Michelle Bachelet, UN High Commissioner for Human Rights stressed that antisemitism was a threat to society as a whole. She expressed concern about “the rise of antisemitism and islamophobia in Europe in 2020” and reiterated the importance of addressing its root causes. Combating antisemitism falls under the responsibility of States.

59. Combating antisemitism also means making the variety of current Jewish life and heritage better known. Gaps in Holocaust knowledge and understanding current Jewishness and Jewish life need to be addressed. It is essential to support Jewish life – including language, education, architecture, sports, libraries, religious and cultural institutions, kosher restaurants and supermarkets, maintenance of cemeteries, and much more, such as educating on the Holocaust – to combat efficiently antisemitism. UNESCO is currently developing an online course with the University College of London for teachers on how to address antisemitism, which should be available soon. Empowering teachers to prevent and combat antisemitism should be made a priority.

60. At the Malmö Forum, Ursula von der Leyen, President of the European Commission, announced that cities aspiring to become European capitals of culture should include activities to foster Jewish life. “Europe can only prosper when Jewish communities prosper too”.

61. Portugal approved a national plan against racism and discrimination, which takes into account actions by the IHRA. On 13 May 2021, the Romanian Government approved a national strategy to prevent and combat antisemitism, xenophobia, radicalisation and hate speech. It also appointed a Special Representative for promoting memory policies combating antisemitism and xenophobia, Ambassador Victor Micula. I had an interesting exchange with him about the implementation of the national strategy. Its objectives are to ensure physical security of groups we could consider at risk of hate victimisation, to increase the resilience of Romanian society to face antisemitism, radicalisation, hate speech and to contribute to international efforts to combat antisemitism. There is a national 36-point action plan. An inter-ministerial committee was established to monitor the implementation of the strategy. One of the priorities is the development of methodologies of reporting antisemitic incidents. Ambassador Micula underlined that most of the Romanian population was not aware there had been an increase in antisemitic speech and should be provided with tools to recognise it. According to him, a larger part of Romanian society should understand that antisemitism was a danger.

62. I received information about the implementation of the German Action Plan against antisemitism from Dr Felix Klein, appointed for a 3-year mandate to co-ordinate actions against antisemitism. He stressed the importance of having commissioners combating antisemitism in local structures. The training of lawyers was another important measure highlighted. Law students had to study how the legal system worked under the Nazi regime. Targeted action with ministries of Education also matters. The 16 regional ministers of education signed a declaration on studying the fight against antisemitism in school. Dr Klein recommended having a reporting system for antisemitic incidents at school. Teacher training on tackling antisemitism was also crucial and educational material was being prepared. Dr Klein stressed that “we have to fight antisemitism as a society”. Key legislation was passed to fight antisemitism and hate speech on the internet. Internet platforms were now obliged to delete antisemitic content and report the IP address of offenders to the police within 24 hours.

63. There have been cases of trivialisation of the Holocaust in Germany, as elsewhere in Europe. Intelligence services have introduced a new category: “deligitimisation of the State”. The ban of the use of yellow stars is being informed via police orders (Ordnungsrecht). Dr Klein’s key recommendations included a strategic approach to the fight against antisemitism, setting up commissioners to combat antisemitism and systematic data collection.

64. The President of the World Jewish Congress, Ronald Lauder, estimates that about 70% of school children in Europe do not know about the Holocaust. These estimations are in line with the Eurobarometer survey of 2019 on perceptions of antisemitism.

Education about the Holocaust is key to prevent antisemitism from developing. Declarations are important but may not be enough. This is why we need to support the work of the Council of Europe Observatory of the teaching of history. If history teaching is not comprehensive, generations will not learn about the Holocaust. At the Council of Europe, increased attention is being paid to Holocaust remembrance. On 17 March 2022, the Committee of Ministers adopted its Recommendation CM/Rec(2022)5 on passing on remembrance of the Holocaust and preventing crimes against humanity.

65. Croatian students learn about the Holocaust in schools within the framework history lessons. The Ministry of Science, Education and Sports draws up guidelines for teaching about the Holocaust, and in December 2019, “the Holocaust Teaching and Learning Recommendations were adopted to support education policy makers and teachers with a view to developing knowledge about the Holocaust, ensuring accuracy in understanding and individual knowledge and raising awareness of the possible consequences of antisemitism, promoting critical and reflective thinking about the Holocaust, including the ability to reject denial and distortion of facts of the Holocaust, contribute to human rights education, and prevent genocide”.

66. The world Holocaust Remembrance Centre “Yad Vashem” in Jerusalem in co-operation with the Ministry of Education and Science of Latvia, organises annual professional development courses on Holocaust education, antisemitism and discrimination in Latvia. The Israeli Embassy and the Jewish Community in the country also participate in the organisation of the courses.

67. The Slovenian National Education Institute sends an annual message to pupils, high school students and university students to mark the International Holocaust Remembrance Day on 27 January.

68. The Norwegian Government has an action plan against antisemitism, which is part of its global work on inclusion and against discrimination and hate speech. The action plan includes: specific projects for schools; grants for teacher training; support to Jewish museums in Oslo and Trondheim and for the Jewish Culture Festival in Trondheim; support for research, including doctoral and postdoctoral positions on the prevention of prejudices hostile to groups in schools and overall research on Jewish life in Norway. In 2018, the government also provided funds for the expansion of the Norwegian Centre for Holocaust and Minority Studies in Oslo. At a practical level, members of the Jewish community conduct two-three visits of the synagogue daily, some also go to schools as pathfinders and discuss. Petra Kahn Nord, representing the World Jewish Congress in Norway, told me that meeting “real Jewish people” was the most efficient way to combat antisemitism. There are initiatives to give space in society to the Jewish community. The country is active at international level to prevent and combat antisemitism and preserve Jewish cultural heritage in Europe.

69. Visits to Holocaust memorials, Jewish museums, Auschwitz and other former concentration camps need to be further encouraged and provide the opportunity to discuss with historians and survivors, while it is still possible. The European Union is planning to set up a network of young ambassadors on Holocaust remembrance to tell the stories of grandparents and parents and to show, that antisemitism during the National Socialist regime did not only occur at concentration camps but nearly everywhere. This network should be strongly supported.

70. Data collection on antisemitic acts is crucial to tailoring responses. The Federation of Jewish Communities of Spain and the Movement against Intolerance created an “Observatory of antisemitism” in 2009. It records acts of physical or verbal violence, attacks against property, antisemitic graffiti in public spaces, antisemitic acts in the media, internet or on social media.

The Spanish Government also co-operates with Jewish foundations to propose educational projects about the Holocaust to students and teachers.

71. Bulgaria, with the assistance of the FRA and the OSCE/ODIHR, conducted a number of training sessions in the period 2018-2019 for law enforcement agencies in the country with a view to improving the process of recording, storing and processing data on hate crimes and increasing the detection and effective prosecution and punishment of hate crimes, including antisemitic acts.

72. Ritual slaughter and other traditional practices were not discussed in the framework of the preparation of this report, a discussion on this topic at a later stage by the Assembly could be useful.

9. Combating antisemitism in sport

73. Antisemitic and racist incidents are regularly reported in the field of sport, and particularly football, where antisemitic words or chants are still sometimes heard, as well as the display of flags and other hateful gestures. Sport has an essential role to play to promote Council of Europe values and should be a vector of respect, positive attitudes, and inclusion. It can contribute to setting the tone with regard to the fight against antisemitism, racism and intolerance.

74. ECRI recommends that the authorities continue prosecuting antisemitic acts and hate speech in football stadiums and thereby ensure that hate speech legislation is known and respected. The authorities should also support dialogue between the football clubs concerned and civil society with a view to reliably preventing racist and in particular antisemitic chants and behaviour. In Poland, ECRI recommended that the authorities encourage the Polish Football Association to develop a code of conduct that would address, among other things, the issue of fans’ racism and that they step up their efforts to raise awareness of the dangers of racism in sport.

75. I took part in an international conference on football and antisemitism in my constituency in Vienna in November 2021. Football clubs signed the IHRA working definition and exchanged about successful activities in combating antisemitism. On the occasion of this conference, the Austrian National Football league and the National Football Team of Austria signed the IHRA working definition of antisemitism and will use it for their future work to combat antisemitism. A panel discussion where I was one of the panelists, stressed the importance of sports, and in particular football, in disseminating messages that stand clearly for human rights and respect for others to the public. The experience of the Chelsea and Borussia Dortmund football clubs shows that football stars who speak out against antisemitism and intolerance have a massive impact and can motivate their fans to rethink their chants, prejudices and attitudes.

76. Lord John Mann, member of the House of Lords and advisor to the United Kingdom Government on antisemitism, is developing a training guide on combating antisemitism in sports, and I have met with him to discuss this project. Football clubs such as Borussia Dortmund have been a spearhead in their actions against antisemitism (together with other forms of racism but also sexism and gender-based violence).

77. Combating antisemitism in sport is one of the priorities for Bulgaria’s fight against antisemitism. It intends to have sports clubs adopt and implement the IHRA working definition of antisemitism in 2022 (commitment formulated in Malmö). The Hungarian Ferencvárosi Torna Club has also joined the initiative of the IHRA and adopted its working definition of antisemitism. I have received information about the “Tolerance football tournament”, organised since 2015 by the Federation of Hungarian Jewish Communities (MAZSIHISZ), between Christian and Jewish children under the age of 14, and activities foreseen for the families.

78. With the support of the Austrian Football Federation and the Austrian Football League, the Fairplay Initiative operates the reporting office “Report discrimination in football!”. Suspected cases of racism/antisemitism in Austrian football are documented and monitored. Fans and stadium visitors can report antisemitic incidents. When antisemitic songs are heard, Fairplay can contact the Austrian Football Federation which can then decide to raise fan groups’ awareness of the issue of antisemitism.

79. In Poland, the campaign “Let’s Kick Racism out of Stadiums” has been run by the Never Again Association since 1996. It aims to combat racism and discrimination at stadiums. Early in 2021, a large Stockholm sports club called Djurgården was criticised for an inappropriate comment made by one of their coaches. The event gained a lot of media attention and the European Jewish Congress addressed the club directly. In the aftermath of the scandal Djurgården decided to adopt the IHRA working definition of antisemitism. They committed to work more actively to combat antisemitism.

In Switzerland, the SLR (service dedicated to the fight against racism) recently decided to support the initiative «Sportler*innen für Offenheit und Vielfalt (VSOV)». The objective of the organisation is to organise meetings between sports teams and combat antisemitism and racism. Stopping games where there are manifestations of antisemitism or other forms of hatred could contribute to raising awareness on the need to combat it.

80. Targeted actions to prevent and combat antisemitism in sports need to be considered. The adoption of codes of conduct by sports federations, awareness-raising campaigns or events launched by clubs, and sanctions for antisemitic hate speech would all be useful to prevent and combat antisemitism in sport and would have an echo beyond the world of sports.

10. Gender dimension of antisemitism

81. I had the opportunity to discuss the gender dimension of antisemitism with Alina Bricman from B'nai B'rith International. This gender dimension can take different forms: specific forms of discrimination, violence combined with antisemitic hate speech against Jewish women and antisemitism by groups which are also profoundly anti-gender and anti-feminist. Calls to gender-based violence, including pro-rape comments, can be found on antisemitic webpages or platforms. There might also be connections with climate change denial.

82. According to Karin Stögner, global antisemitism is hardly included in intersectional analysis, as Jewish people are considered often as privileged and white. There are also stereotypes about Jewish women and their status. Several members of parliament were targets of gendered antisemitic attacks.

83. There is to date limited research on the gender dimension of antisemitism,

but this topic would deserve further research, as well as the topic of hatred and discrimination against LGBTI Jews and Jews of colour. It would be relevant to look at the question of antisemitism directed against women, and coming from women. Being a woman might be a mitigating factor. The fight against antisemitism and discrimination in general deserves an inclusive and intersectional approach. The FRA noted an intersectionality of Russian minority groups and Jewish groups in some places in the European Union, which is another topic which could be further explored. Identities are multiple and need to be recognised.

11. Conclusions

84. Antisemitism concerns all of us: it is a human rights matter and should be tackled within a human rights framework. Multiple responses are essential to prevent and combat antisemitism, including a strong international commitment, clear legislation on hate speech, actions at national and local levels to prevent antisemitism, investments in the education field and awareness-raising programmes addressed towards youth. Specific attention should be given to address antisemitism in the political sphere, including in political parties. The creation of parliamentary groups in national parliaments on combating all forms of hatred could be considered.

85. Ensuring the security of Jewish communities falls under the responsibility of States. Jewish people leaving or considering leaving Europe is a sign that our continent has failed to protect them and foster Jewish life. There must be a clear signal that Jewish communities are and always have been at home in Europe.

86. In line with what is requested from EU member States in the EU strategy, I believe it would be of utmost importance to ask all 46 Council of Europe member States to adopt and implement a national strategy or action plan to prevent and combat antisemitism and to promote Jewish life, or include a significant part dedicated to combating antisemitism in overall plans on combating racism, and allocate sufficient funding for its implementation. These action plans or strategies should be prepared in consultation with Jewish communities and address prevention, protection and redress. In my view, they also need to include a part on fostering Jewish life. The appointment of special envoys or co-ordinators on combating antisemitism could be encouraged.

87. Antisemitic rhetoric is being increasingly used in times of crisis, pandemic or war. As Katharina von Schnurbein highlighted, antisemitism mutates with the context. Jewish communities are taken as a scapegoat for any problems which may arise. Antisemitic hate speech is widespread, including online, and strong measures should be taken so as to prevent their dissemination. Antisemitic content should be withdrawn from social media and sanctions, including financial fines, imposed in cases of non-compliance. Voluntary commitments by social media platforms to withdraw hate speech are not enough. A balance needs to be found between content moderation and free speech. I look forward to the forthcoming Committee of Ministers’ Recommendation on a comprehensive approach to addressing hate speech within a Human Rights Framework.

88. Holocaust denial and distortion aim at negating a part of European history. They can also be used to promote a political agenda. The denial, trivialisation, justification or praise of the Holocaust should be criminalised. History education must include education on the Holocaust and prevent its trivialisation as well as revisionism. Specific educational programmes, as well as awareness-raising campaigns, are instrumental tools to prevent antisemitism. Sufficient funding must be allocated for their creation, if needed, and implementation. New ways of telling the story of the Holocaust, without survivors sharing their story, should be found. The Assembly should also be encouraged to continue its actions on Holocaust remembrance every year.

89. Collecting data on antisemitic acts and conducting research on the root causes of antisemitism are essential to tailor the response. Increasing trust in law-enforcement will undeniably encourage reporting. Training of police officers, prosecutors, and judges on preventing and combating antisemitism is a key recommendation. It could include elements on stepping up support to victims of antisemitic incidents.

90. Mendel Samama, rabbi of Strasbourg, told me when we met: “You cannot love what you don’t know but you can hate it”. It is of utmost importance to ensure that there are opportunities to meet and discuss. Projects such as the pathfinders’ programme in Norway could inspire other countries.

91. The European Union calls on its member States to endorse and implement the IHRA working definition of antisemitism. At our hearing, FRA Director Michael O’Flaherty stressed the importance of having a common definition of antisemitism. According to him, the “IHRA working definition has a high value. It is a working definition since it is practical”. ECRI also adopted an opinion on the working definition, which indicates that “the working definition is based on a concept that also includes various contemporary forms of antisemitism without trying to delegitimise criticism of Israel to the extent that the latter is held to the same standards as any other State”. ECRI encourages Council of Europe member States to take the working definition into account and I propose to use it, in the light of ECRI’s opinion.

92. It is essential to raise awareness of the population on the urgency of preventing antisemitism, at a practical level, and not at a theoretical level only. UN Secretary-General António Guterres underlined at the Malmö Forum in October 2021 that a society that had no room for diversity had no room for humanity. Preventing and combating antisemitism is a commitment to not leave our humanity aside.